Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definitions and Key Differences

Anatomy and Physiology are foundational sciences in understanding the human body. Anatomy focuses on the structure, while Physiology emphasizes function.

• Anatomy: The study of the structure and relationships between body parts.

• Physiology: The study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole.

• Emergent Properties: Characteristics that arise from the interaction of simpler elements, not present in the individual components.

• Complementary Structure: The concept that structure and function are interrelated; the shape of a body part enables its function.

Hierarchical Organization of the Body

The human body is organized from the simplest to the most complex levels.

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together

• Organism Level: The complete living being

Major Themes of Physiology

There are four major themes in physiology:

• Homeostasis

• Structure-Function Relationships

• Energy Use

• Communication

Cell Characteristics and Organization

Cells are the smallest units capable of life. Most experts agree that viruses are not considered living cells.

• Red Blood Cell Example: Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Dynamic Equilibrium: Fluctuations around a set point within a normal range.

Parameters and Feedback Mechanisms

• Physiological Parameters: Examples include body temperature, blood pressure, and pH.

• Feedback Loops: Negative feedback is more common in the body than positive feedback.

• Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (negative feedback).

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: A structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.

• Human Body Systems: There are 11 major systems (e.g., circulatory, respiratory, nervous, etc.), each with specific functions.

Afferent vs. Efferent; Effect vs. Affect

• Afferent: Carrying information toward a central point (e.g., sensory neurons).

• Efferent: Carrying information away from a central point (e.g., motor neurons).

• Effect: The result or outcome.

• Affect: To influence or change.

Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life

Basic Chemistry Concepts

Chemistry underlies all physiological processes. Understanding chemical principles is essential for studying the body.

• Hydration Shell: The layer of water molecules surrounding a dissolved ion or molecule.

• pH: A measure of hydrogen ion concentration; acidity or basicity.

• Water Properties: Cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, and solvent abilities.

• Law of Mass Action: The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants.

Organic vs. Inorganic Chemistry

• Organic Chemistry: Study of carbon-containing compounds.

• Inorganic Chemistry: Study of non-carbon compounds, including water, salts, acids, and bases.

Biomolecules and Chemical Reactions

• Major Biomolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

• Monomers and Polymers: Monomers are building blocks; polymers are chains of monomers.

• Hydrolysis: Breaking polymers into monomers by adding water.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Joining monomers by removing water.

Metabolism and Energy

• Glycogen Storage: Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.

• ATP: The primary energy currency of the cell.

• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein; transcription and translation occur in the nucleus and cytoplasm, respectively.

Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Theory and Microscopy

• Modern Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life.

• Microscopy: Most human cells require a light or electron microscope to be seen.

Cell Regions and Organelles

• Major Regions: Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.

• Major Organelles: Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes.

• Endomembrane System: A network of membranes involved in transport and processing within the cell.

Protein and Lipid Pathways

• Protein Synthesis: DNA → mRNA → Protein (transcription and translation).

• Lipid Synthesis: Occurs in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane

• Cytoskeletal Proteins: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.

• Plasma Membrane: Selectively permeable; composed of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol.

• Glycocalyx: Carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface involved in cell recognition.

Cell Cycle and Division

• Interphase: Cell grows and replicates DNA; most cells spend 90% of their cycle here.

• G0 Phase: Resting phase; cells are not actively dividing.

• Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Mitosis produces identical cells; meiosis produces gametes.

Chapter 4: Membrane Transport and Cell Communication

Cell Connections and Transport

• Cell Adhesion: Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions.

• Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.

• Active Transport: Requires energy; e.g., sodium-potassium pump.

Osmosis and Diffusion

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure exerted by a fluid.

• Tonicity: The effect of a solution on cell volume (isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic).

Transport Mechanisms

• Primary Active Transport: Direct use of ATP.

• Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy from ion gradients.

• Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis and exocytosis.

Chapter 3 (continued): Metabolism and Energy

Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy; anabolic reactions.

• Exergonic: Release energy; catabolic reactions.

Activation Energy and Enzymes

• Activation Energy: The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that lower activation energy.

Metabolic Pathways

• Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: Direct transfer of phosphate to ADP.

• Oxidative Phosphorylation: ATP production via electron transport chain.

• Redox Reactions: Transfer of electrons; oxidation and reduction.

Cellular Respiration

• Major Phases: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.

• ATP Production: Range: 30-32 ATP per glucose molecule.

• Fates of Pyruvate: Conversion to lactate or entry into Krebs cycle.

Chapter 5: Cell Communication

Direct vs. Indirect Communication

• Direct Communication: Via gap junctions or cell-to-cell contact.

• Indirect Communication: Via chemical messengers (hormones, neurotransmitters).

Major Modes of Chemical Messengers

• Autocrine: Acts on the same cell that secreted the messenger.

• Paracrine: Acts on nearby cells.

• Endocrine: Acts on distant cells via the bloodstream.

• Neurocrine: Released by neurons.

Additional info:

• Equations: (Law of Mass Action, example from chemistry)

• ATP Hydrolysis:

• Central Dogma: