Exercise 9 – Bone and Cartilage Structure

Bone Markings and Structure

This section covers the identification and classification of bone markings and the microscopic anatomy of bone tissue.

• Bone Markings:

  • Line (linea)

  • Head

  • Facet

  • Condyle

  • Fossa

  • Tubercle

  • Tuberosity

  • Trochanter

  • Spine

  • Crest

  • Process

  • Foramen

  • Fontanel

  • Suture

  • Sinus

  • Meatus

  • Ramus

  • Cavity

• Parts of a Typical Long Bone:

  • Diaphysis (shaft)

  • Epiphysis (ends)

  • Medullary cavity

  • Articular cartilage

  • Periosteum

  • Endosteum

• Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone:

  • Osteon (Haversian system)

  • Central (Haversian) canal

  • Lamellae (concentric, interstitial, circumferential)

  • Lacunae

  • Canaliculi

  • Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal

Exercise 10 – The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. Students must identify major bones and their markings.

• Skull Bones:

  • Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, Sphenoid, Ethmoid

  • Mandible, Maxilla, Zygomatic, Nasal, Lacrimal, Palatine, Vomer, Inferior nasal concha

• Vertebral Column:

  • Cervical (atlas, axis, dens)

  • Thoracic

  • Lumbar

  • Sacrum

  • Coccyx

• Thoracic Cage:

  • Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process)

  • Ribs (true, false, floating)

Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs and girdles. Students must identify bones and their articulations.

• Pectoral Girdle:

  • Clavicle (acromial end, sternal end)

  • Scapula (acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, spine, subscapular fossa, supraspinous fossa, infraspinous fossa)

• Upper Limb:

  • Humerus (head, capitulum, trochlea, greater/lesser tubercle, deltoid tuberosity, radial groove, olecranon fossa)

  • Radius (head, neck, radial tuberosity, styloid process)

  • Ulna (olecranon, coronoid process, trochlear notch, styloid process)

  • Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges

• Pelvic Girdle:

  • Os coxae (ilium, ischium, pubis, acetabulum, obturator foramen)

• Lower Limb:

  • Femur (head, neck, greater/lesser trochanter, medial/lateral condyle, patellar surface)

  • Tibia (medial/lateral condyle, tibial tuberosity, medial malleolus)

  • Fibula (head, lateral malleolus)

  • Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalanges

Exercise 11 – Articulations

Classification and Structure of Joints

This section focuses on the classification of joints and identification of major ligaments and structures.

• Types of Joints by Structure:

  • Fibrous joints (sutures, syndesmoses)

  • Cartilaginous joints (symphysis, synchondrosis)

  • Synovial joints

• Types of Joints by Function:

  • Synarthroses (immovable)

  • Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)

  • Diarthroses (freely movable)

• Major Ligaments and Structures:

  • Shoulder: coracoacromial, coracoclavicular, glenohumeral ligaments

  • Knee: anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), lateral/medial collateral ligaments, menisci

  • Hip: iliofemoral ligament

Exercise 12 – Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

Neuromuscular Junction and Muscle Fiber Structure

This section covers the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle, including the neuromuscular junction and muscle fiber components.

• Neuromuscular Junction:

  • Motor neuron

  • Axon terminal

  • Synaptic vesicles

  • Synaptic cleft

  • Motor end plate

  • Postsynaptic membrane

• Muscle Fiber Components:

  • Myofibrils

  • Actin filament

  • Myosin filament

  • Sarcolemma

  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum

  • Transverse (T) tubules

  • Mitochondria

  • Nucleus

  • Basal lamina

Exercise 13 – Gross Anatomy of Muscle System

Muscle Identification on Cat and Human Models

This section requires identification of major muscles on cat specimens and human models, including their anatomical locations.

• Cat Muscles (Ventral and Dorsal Aspects):

  • Adductor femoris, Biceps brachii, Gastrocnemius, Gluteus medius, Latissimus dorsi, Pectoralis major/minor, Rectus femoris, Sartorius, Semitendinosus, Soleus, Tibialis anterior, Triceps brachii, Vastus lateralis/medialis

• Human Muscles (Torso, Arm, Leg):

  • Adductor longus/magnus, Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Deltoid, Gastrocnemius, Gluteus maximus/medius, Gracilis, Hamstrings, Latissimus dorsi, Pectoralis major/minor, Quadriceps femoris, Rectus femoris, Sartorius, Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Serratus anterior, Soleus, Tibialis anterior, Trapezius, Triceps brachii, Vastus lateralis/medialis

Key Table: Bone Markings and Their Functions

This table summarizes common bone markings and their typical functions.

Key Equations and Concepts

• Bone Growth Equation:

• Muscle Contraction:

Additional info:

• Students should be familiar with the identification of bones and muscles on both models and actual specimens.

• Understanding the relationship between bone markings and muscle attachments is essential for functional anatomy.

• Knowledge of joint classification aids in understanding movement and stability in the human body.