Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Directional Terms, Tissues, Integumentary and Skeletal Systems, and Muscle Contraction

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Directional Terms and Anatomical Regions

Directional Terms

Directional terms are used in anatomy to describe the locations of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

Lateral: Away from the midline of the body (e.g., lungs are lateral to the heart).
Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure.
Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure.
Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.
Posterior: Toward the back of the body.
Anterior: Toward the front of the body.

Anatomical Regions

Anatomical regions are specific areas of the body used to help identify locations of structures. Common terms include:

Orbital: Eye region
Mental: Chin
Brachial: Arm
Sural: Calf
Plantar: Sole of the foot
Palmar: Palm of the hand
Buccal: Cheek
Popliteal: Back of the knee
Etc.

Directional Planes/Sections

Directional planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

Directional plane/section	Description	Example
Sagittal	Divides the body into right and left parts	Cut through the midline (midsagittal) or off-center (parasagittal)
Frontal (Coronal)	Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts	Cut from side to side
Transverse (Horizontal)	Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts	Cut horizontally through the body

Cell Transport Methods

Overview of Transport Methods

Cells use various methods to move substances across their membranes. These include passive and active processes.

Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration. Example: Oxygen moving into cells.
Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules across a membrane via transport proteins. Example: Glucose entering a cell.
Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Example: Water moving into red blood cells.
Active Transport: Movement of substances against a concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP). Example: Sodium-potassium pump moving Na+ out and K+ into the cell.

Tissues of the Body

Major Tissue Types

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a common function. The four basic types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

Name of Tissue	Where it is found in the body?	Example
Stratified epithelium	Skin, lining of mouth	Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion
Squamous epithelium	Alveoli of lungs, lining of blood vessels	Allows for diffusion and filtration
Columnar epithelium	Lining of digestive tract	Absorption and secretion
Osseous (bone) tissue	Bones	Support, protection, mineral storage
Hyaline cartilage	Ends of long bones, nose, trachea	Provides support and flexibility
Skeletal muscle	Attached to bones	Voluntary movement
Cardiac muscle	Heart	Pumps blood involuntarily
Areolar tissue	Under epithelia, around organs	Wraps and cushions organs
Nervous tissue	Brain, spinal cord, nerves	Transmit electrical impulses

Integumentary System: Skin Structure and Function

Skin Layers and Cells

The skin is composed of multiple layers and specialized cells that provide protection and other functions.

Keratin is found in the outermost layer of the skin (epidermis) and provides waterproofing and protection.
Melanocytes are found in the basal layer of the epidermis and produce melanin, which gives skin its color and protects against UV radiation.

Types of Skin Cancer

Name of cancer	Description	Example
Basal cell carcinoma	Most common, arises from basal cells in the epidermis, slow-growing, rarely metastasizes	Small, pearly bump on sun-exposed skin
Squamous cell carcinoma	Arises from squamous cells, can metastasize, often appears as a scaly red patch	Scaly, crusted lesion on sun-exposed areas
Melanoma	Arises from melanocytes, most dangerous, can rapidly metastasize	Irregular, multicolored mole or lesion

Types of Burns

1st degree burn: Affects only the epidermis; redness, mild pain, no blisters.
2nd degree burn: Affects epidermis and part of dermis; redness, pain, blisters.
3rd degree burn: Destroys epidermis and dermis; may extend into subcutaneous tissue; skin may appear white, charred, or leathery; usually painless due to nerve damage.

Skeletal System: Bone Structure and Development

Development of Bone

Bone development (ossification) occurs from fetus to adult, involving the replacement of cartilage with bone tissue.

Fontanels: Soft spots on a baby's skull that allow for growth of the brain and skull during infancy.
Epiphyses: The ends of long bones where growth occurs in children and adolescents.

Parts of the Long Bone

Diaphysis: Shaft of the bone
Epiphysis: Ends of the bone
Metaphysis: Region between diaphysis and epiphysis
Medullary cavity: Central cavity containing bone marrow
Periosteum: Outer covering of bone
Endosteum: Lining of the medullary cavity
Articular cartilage: Covers joint surfaces

Parts of the Skull and Skeleton

The skull and skeleton are composed of many bones, each with specific names and locations. Key bones include:

Skull: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, maxilla, mandible, zygomatic, etc.
Skeleton: Clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, pelvis, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, etc.

Muscular System: Muscle Contraction

Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction

The sliding filament theory explains how muscles contract at the molecular level.

Actin and myosin are the main proteins involved in muscle contraction.
When a muscle receives a signal at the neuromuscular junction, calcium ions are released, allowing myosin heads to bind to actin filaments.
Using energy from ATP, myosin heads pull actin filaments inward, shortening the sarcomere and causing contraction.
This process repeats as long as calcium and ATP are available.

Nervous System (Preview)

The nervous system will be covered in further detail in subsequent chapters, focusing on the structure and function of neurons, the brain, and the spinal cord.

Additional info: Some tables and diagrams in the original file required students to fill in images or labels; these have been described in text for clarity. The study guide covers foundational topics in anatomy and physiology, including terminology, tissues, integumentary and skeletal systems, and muscle contraction.