Blood: Structure, Function, and Disorders – Study Notes for Anatomy & Physiology

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Blood performs several essential functions in the human body, including transport, regulation, and protection.

Transport: Blood delivers oxygen from the lungs to all body cells and transports waste from cells to organs such as the kidneys for excretion.
Regulation: Blood maintains a narrow pH range (7.35–7.45) and regulates fluid volume in tissues via plasma proteins like albumin.
Protection: Blood prevents infection through white blood cells (WBCs) and antibodies, and prevents blood loss through clotting mechanisms.

Blood consists of plasma and formed elements, each with distinct roles.

Plasma: The liquid part of blood containing water, proteins, electrolytes, nitrogenous waste, and respiratory gases.
Formed Elements: Includes erythrocytes (red blood cells), platelets, and leukocytes (granulocytes and agranulocytes).

Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells responsible for oxygen transport.

Structure: Hemoglobin consists of four polypeptide chains, each with a heme group containing iron.
Oxygen Binding: Each heme group binds one O2 molecule; thus, one hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four O2 molecules.

Several disorders affect the formed elements of blood, impacting oxygen transport and overall health.

Disorder	Description	Cause(s)	Treatment and Other Notes
Iron-deficiency anemia	Low oxygen-carrying capacity due to insufficient iron	Blood loss, lack of iron in diet, pregnancy, heavy menstrual periods	Iron supplements
Pernicious anemia	Inability to absorb vitamin B12, leading to abnormal RBCs	Gastric bypass, dietary deficiency, autoimmune disease	Vitamin B12 injections, oral vitamin B12
Sickle cell disease	Hemoglobin mutation, sickle-shaped RBCs	Genetic defect	Medication, transfusion, oxygen therapies
Polycythemia	Increased hematocrit, excess hemoglobin	Stem cell defects, chronic hypoxia, gene mutation, high altitude, smoking, testosterone therapy, kidney disease, sleep apnea	Therapies, medications

Leukocytes (white blood cells) are crucial for immune defense. Disorders can affect their number and function.

Disorder	Description	Cause(s)	Treatment and Other Notes
Lymphocytic leukemia	Cancer of the lymphocytes	Age, family history, exposure to chemicals	Chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy
Infectious mononucleosis	Viral infection caused by Epstein-Barr virus	Viral	Rest, fluids, OTC pain relievers

Abnormal blood cell counts can indicate underlying health issues.

Blood cell	Suspected problem	Relationship to function
High neutrophil count	Elevated during bacterial infections	Phagocytize bacteria
High eosinophil count	Elevated during allergic reactions and parasitic infections	Kills parasites, controls allergy reactions
High basophil count	Infection, leukemia, autoimmune diseases	Releases histamine, aids inflammation
High lymphocyte count	Elevated numbers during viral infection	Mounts immune response by direct cell attack (T cells) or antibodies (B cells)
High platelet count	Broken vessels	Platelets are cytoplasmic fragments important for clotting

Hemostasis is the process of stopping blood loss from vessels.

Steps: Vascular spasm (vasoconstriction), platelet plug formation, and coagulation.
Anticoagulant Drugs:
1. Warfarin: Used for long-term prevention of blood clots in conditions like atrial fibrillation, DVT, PE.
2. Heparin: Used for acute situations where rapid anticoagulation is needed (MI, CVA, DVT, PE).
3. Rivaroxaban: Used to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation and to treat DVT and PE.

Blood type is determined by the presence of specific antigens on RBCs.

HDN occurs when maternal antibodies attack fetal RBCs due to Rh incompatibility.

Mechanism: Rh-negative mother exposed to Rh-positive fetal blood produces anti-Rh antibodies, which can attack fetal RBCs in subsequent pregnancies.

CMP (Comprehensive Metabolic Panel): Assesses overall body chemistry, including electrolytes, liver and kidney function, and blood sugar.
CBC (Complete Blood Count): Measures the number of cells in the blood, including RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

Term	Use in a sentence	Synonym
Plasma	Plasma is the liquid part of the blood, including clotting factors.	Blood without the cells
Hemopoiesis	Hemopoiesis is the process of blood cell production.	Blood cell formation
Hemoglobin	Hemoglobin carries O2 and CO2.	Oxygen carrier
Hematocrit	Hematocrit is the total volume of RBCs in total blood.	RBC volume
Sickle cell anemia	Sickle cell anemia has sickle-shaped RBCs.	Blade blood
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)	The mother's antibodies attack the baby, resulting in HDN.	Blood attack

Some context and examples were inferred to clarify the clinical significance and mechanisms of blood disorders and tests.