Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definition and Scope of Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, tissues, and cells. It encompasses several subfields:

• Cytology: Study of cells

• Regional Anatomy: Study of specific regions of the body

• Systemic Anatomy: Study of organ systems

• Surface Anatomy: Study of external features

Definition and Scope of Physiology

Physiology is the study of the functions and mechanisms occurring within living organisms. It explains how anatomical structures work together to sustain life.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disease.

• Feedback Loops: Mechanisms that regulate homeostasis, including:

  • Biological feedback loops: e.g., regulation of blood glucose

  • Non-biological feedback loops: e.g., thermostat regulation

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Structure and function are closely related

• Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Characteristics of Life

• Organization

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Growth

• Development

• Reproduction

• Adaptation

Metabolism Equation

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Evolution

• Adaptation: Changes that increase an organism's chance of survival

• Natural Selection: Process by which traits that enhance survival are passed on

• Evolution: Change in genetic composition of a population over time

Stimulus

A stimulus is any change in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Hierarchical Levels of Organization

• Chemical level

• Cellular level

• Tissue level

• Organ level

• Organ system level

• Organism level

Major Tissue Types

• Epithelial

• Connective

• Muscle

• Nervous

Cytology vs. Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells

• Histology: Study of tissues

Definition of Organ

An organ is a structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.

Major Organ Systems and Functions

• Integumentary

• Skeletal

• Muscular

• Nervous

• Endocrine

• Cardiovascular

• Lymphatic

• Respiratory

• Digestive

• Urinary

• Reproductive

Feedback Loops

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies change (e.g., childbirth)

• Negative Feedback: Reduces change (e.g., temperature regulation)

Gradients in the Body

Gradients (e.g., concentration, pressure) drive movement of substances.

Cell Communication

Cells communicate via chemical signals, electrical signals, and direct contact.

Lecture 2: Chemical Basis of Life

Atoms and Atomic Structure

An atom is the smallest unit of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Atomic number: Number of protons

• Atomic mass: Sum of protons and neutrons

Subatomic Particles and Ionic Bonds

• Protons: Positive charge

• Neutrons: Neutral

• Electrons: Negative charge

• Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between atoms

Chemical Properties of Atoms

Determined by electron configuration, especially valence electrons.

Types of Bonds

• Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons

• Covalent bonds: Sharing of electrons

• Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules

Periodic Table Elements

Elements are organized by atomic number and properties.

Octet and Duet Rules

Atoms tend to fill their outer shell with 8 (octet) or 2 (duet) electrons for stability.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are substances that dissociate into ions in water and conduct electricity.

Solubility of Bonds

• Ionic bonds are most likely to dissolve in water

• Covalent bonds are least likely to dissolve

Lecture 3: Energy and Chemical Reactions

Types of Energy

• Kinetic energy: Energy of motion

• Potential energy: Stored energy

Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy

• Exergonic: Release energy

Anabolism vs. Catabolism

• Anabolism: Building up molecules

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules

Chemical Reaction Components

• Reactants

• Products

Organic vs. Inorganic Chemistry

• Organic: Contains carbon

• Inorganic: Does not contain carbon

Reaction Rates and Enzymes

• Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy

• Factors: temperature, pH, concentration

Hydrophobic vs. Hydrophilic

• Hydrophobic: Repels water

• Hydrophilic: Attracts water

pH and Buffers

pH measures hydrogen ion concentration. Buffers maintain pH stability.

Lecture 4: Macromolecules

Types of Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic acids

Monomers and Polymers

• Monomers: building blocks

• Polymers: chains of monomers

Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

• Dehydration synthesis: Forms bonds by removing water

• Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by adding water

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Lipids

• Types: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

• Properties: hydrophobic, energy storage

Lecture 5: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Theory

• All living things are composed of cells

• Cells are the basic unit of life

• All cells come from pre-existing cells

Cell Components

• Plasma membrane

• Cytoplasm

• Nucleus

Fluid Mosaic Model

The cell membrane is a dynamic structure composed of lipids and proteins.

Membrane Proteins

• Transport

• Receptors

• Enzymes

• Cell recognition

Glycocalyx

Glycocalyx is a carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface involved in cell recognition.

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive transport: Diffusion, osmosis

• Active transport: Requires energy, e.g., sodium-potassium pump

Tonicity

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside cell

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside cell

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration

Lecture 6: Organelles and Cellular Transport

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus

• Mitochondria

• Ribosomes

• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

• Golgi apparatus

• Peroxisomes

• Lysosomes

Organelle Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• ER: Protein and lipid synthesis

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins

• Peroxisomes: Detoxification

• Lysosomes: Digestion of cellular waste

Lecture 7: Cytoskeleton and Nucleus

Cytoskeleton Functions

• Structural support

• Cell movement

• Transport within cell

Major Cytoskeletal Fibers

• Microfilaments: Actin, cell movement

• Intermediate filaments: Structural stability

• Microtubules: Cell division, transport

Nucleus Structure and Function

• Control center of cell

• Contains chromatin (DNA + proteins)

• Chromosomes: condensed chromatin

DNA Structure

• Double helix

• Phosphodiester linkages

• Base pairing: A-T, G-C

Central Dogma of Biology

DNA → RNA → Protein

Genes vs. Genomes

• Gene: Segment of DNA coding for a protein

• Genome: Complete set of genetic material

Lecture 8: Protein Synthesis and Cell Cycle

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA

• Translation: mRNA to protein

• Post-transcriptional modification: splicing, capping, polyadenylation

Genetic Code

• Codon: Three-base sequence on mRNA

• Anticodon: Complementary sequence on tRNA

Ribosome Function

• Initiation, elongation, termination of translation

Cell Cycle

• Interphase: G1, S, G2

• Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

• Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm

DNA Replication

• Occurs during S phase

• Enzymes: DNA polymerase, helicase

Cell Death and Tumors

• Programmed cell death (apoptosis): Normal process

• Benign tumor: Non-cancerous

• Malignant tumor: Cancerous, can metastasize

• Metastasis: Spread of cancer cells

Additional info:

• This guide covers foundational topics in Anatomy & Physiology, including cell biology, biochemistry, genetics, and physiology.

• For exam preparation, review textbook chapters and lecture materials for detailed examples and diagrams.