Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definition and Scope of Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, tissues, and cells. It encompasses several subfields:

• Cytology: Study of cells

• Histology: Study of tissues

• Regional Anatomy: Study of specific areas of the body

• Systemic Anatomy: Study of organ systems

• Surface Anatomy: Study of external features

Definition of Physiology

Physiology is the study of the functions and mechanisms occurring in living organisms. It explains how anatomical structures work together to sustain life.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Disruption can lead to disease or dysfunction.

• Feedback Loops: Mechanisms that regulate homeostasis.

• Biological Feedback Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin.

• Non-biological Feedback Example: Thermostat regulating room temperature.

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Structure and function are closely related.

• Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

Characteristics of Life

• Organization

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Growth

• Development

• Reproduction

• Homeostasis

Metabolism Equation

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

• Equation:

Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Evolution

• Adaptation: Inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival.

• Natural Selection: Process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

• Evolution: Change in the genetic composition of a population over time.

Stimulus

A stimulus is any change in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Hierarchical Levels of Organization

• Chemical level

• Cellular level

• Tissue level

• Organ level

• Organ system level

• Organism level

Major Tissue Types

• Epithelial

• Connective

• Muscle

• Nervous

Cytology vs. Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells

• Histology: Study of tissues

Definition of Organ

An organ is a structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.

Major Organ Systems and Functions

• Integumentary

• Skeletal

• Muscular

• Nervous

• Endocrine

• Cardiovascular

• Lymphatic

• Respiratory

• Digestive

• Urinary

• Reproductive

Feedback Loops

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies change (e.g., childbirth)

• Negative Feedback: Reduces change (e.g., temperature regulation)

Structure and Function

Structure determines function; for example, the shape of red blood cells allows them to carry oxygen efficiently.

Gradients

Gradients are differences in concentration, pressure, or electrical charge that drive movement in the body.

Cell Communication

Cells communicate via chemical signals, electrical signals, and direct contact.

Lecture 2: Chemistry of Life

Atoms and Subatomic Particles

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter

• Proton: Positively charged particle

• Neutron: Neutral particle

• Electron: Negatively charged particle

• Atomic Number: Number of protons

• Atomic Mass: Number of protons + neutrons

Subatomic Particles and Ionic Bonds

• Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between atoms.

Chemical Properties of Atoms

Determined by the number and arrangement of electrons.

Types of Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between polar molecules

Octet and Duet Rules

• Atoms tend to fill their outer shell with 8 electrons (octet) or 2 (duet for hydrogen and helium).

Electrolytes

Substances that dissociate in water to produce ions, conducting electricity.

Bond Solubility in Water

• Ionic bonds are most likely to dissolve in water.

• Covalent bonds are least likely to dissolve.

Lecture 3: Chemical Reactions and Energy

Types of Energy

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion

• Potential Energy: Stored energy

Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy

• Exergonic: Release energy

Anabolism vs. Catabolism

• Anabolism: Building up molecules

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules

Chemical Reaction Components

• Reactants: Substances entering a reaction

• Products: Substances produced

Organic vs. Inorganic Chemistry

• Organic: Contains carbon

• Inorganic: Does not contain carbon

Reaction Rates and Enzymes

• Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Factors: temperature, concentration, catalysts

Hydrophobic vs. Hydrophilic

• Hydrophobic: Repels water

• Hydrophilic: Attracts water

pH and Buffers

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration

• Buffer: Substance that resists changes in pH

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic acids

Monomers and Polymers

• Monomer: Single unit

• Polymer: Chain of monomers

Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

• Dehydration Synthesis: Forms bonds by removing water

• Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by adding water

Carbohydrate Types

• Monosaccharides

• Disaccharides

• Polysaccharides

Lipids

• Triglycerides

• Phospholipids

• Steroids

Lecture 4: Nucleic Acids and Cell Theory

Nucleic Acids

• DNA: Stores genetic information

• RNA: Involved in protein synthesis

ATP

• ATP: Main energy currency of the cell

• Terminal phosphate releases energy during hydrolysis

Transcription vs. Translation

• Transcription: DNA to RNA

• Translation: RNA to protein

Protein Structure

• Primary

• Secondary

• Tertiary

• Quaternary

Lecture 5: Cell Structure and Membranes

Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells

• Cells are the basic unit of life

• Cells arise from pre-existing cells

Cell Components

• Plasma membrane

• Cytoplasm

• Nucleus

Fluid Mosaic Model

Describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of proteins floating in a sea of lipids.

Membrane Proteins

• Transport

• Receptors

• Enzymes

• Cell recognition

Glycocalyx

Carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface involved in cell recognition.

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive: diffusion, osmosis

• Active: requires energy, uses pumps

Tonicity

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside cell

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside cell

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Maintains cell potential by pumping Na+ out and K+ in.

Types of Transport

• Simple diffusion

• Facilitated diffusion

• Active transport

Lecture 6: Cell Organelles

Major Organelles and Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material

• Mitochondria: Produces ATP

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid synthesis

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins

• Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids

• Lysosomes: Digest cellular waste

Lecture 7: Cytoskeleton and Nucleus

Cytoskeleton Functions and Fiber Types

• Microfilaments: Cell movement

• Intermediate filaments: Structural support

• Microtubules: Cell division, transport

Examples of Cytoskeleton Structures

• Cilia

• Flagella

• Microvilli

Nucleus Structure and Function

• Control center of the cell

• Contains chromatin and chromosomes

Chromatin vs. Chromosome vs. Sister Chromatid

• Chromatin: DNA + proteins

• Chromosome: Condensed chromatin

• Sister Chromatid: Identical copies of a chromosome

Phosphodiester Linkages

Bonds that connect nucleotides in DNA and RNA.

DNA Structure and Base Pairing

• Double helix

• Base pairs: A-T, C-G

• Hydrogen bonds between bases

Central Dogma of Biology

Describes the flow of genetic information: DNA → RNA → Protein.

Genes vs. Genomes

• Gene: Segment of DNA coding for a protein

• Genome: Complete set of genetic material

Lecture 8: Cell Cycle and Protein Synthesis

Cell Cycle Steps

• Interphase: G1, S, G2

• Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

• Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm

DNA Replication

• Occurs during S phase

• Enzymes: DNA polymerase, helicase

Checkpoints and Cell Death

• Checkpoints ensure proper division

• Programmed cell death (apoptosis) prevents cancer

Benign vs. Malignant Tumors

• Benign: Non-cancerous, does not spread

• Malignant: Cancerous, can metastasize

Metastasis

Spread of cancer cells from the original site to other parts of the body.

Additional info:

• This guide covers foundational topics in Anatomy & Physiology, including cell biology, biochemistry, genetics, and pathology.

• For exam preparation, review textbook chapters, lecture notes, and assignments for detailed explanations and examples.