Medical Terminology

Root Words

Root words express the main element of a medical term and are most often related to a body part or organ.

• Definition: The core meaning of a term.

• Example: cardi (heart), hepat (liver).

Prefix

A prefix is a modifier attached to the beginning of a word, usually indicating location, time, number, or status.

• Example: pre- (before), sub- (under).

Suffix

A suffix is a modifier attached to the end of a word, usually indicating procedure, condition, or disorder.

• Example: -itis (inflammation), -ectomy (removal).

Combining Forms

Combining forms are used to join root words, especially when the next syllable begins with a consonant (vowel is used) or a vowel (no vowel is added).

• Example: oste/o (bone) + itis = osteitis.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

• Abbreviations: Shortened forms of words or phrases (e.g., BP for blood pressure).

• Acronyms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., ECG for electrocardiogram).

Symbols

Symbols are one or more letters or numbers representing a thing, function, or process (e.g., Na+ for sodium ion).

Eponyms

Words that use a person's name to indicate something (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

Synonyms and Antonyms

• Synonyms: Words with the same or similar meanings.

• Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.

Plural Forms

Endings that pluralize medical terms:

• -ae for -a (e.g., vertebra → vertebrae)

• -ices for -ix (e.g., appendix → appendices)

• -es for -is (e.g., diagnosis → diagnoses)

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of structure in the human body.

• Gross Anatomy: Structures visible to the naked eye (regional, surface, systemic anatomy).

• Microscopic Anatomy: Structures seen with a microscope (cytology, histology).

• Developmental Anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout life (e.g., embryology).

Physiology

Physiology is the study of body function at various levels.

• Molecular Physiology

• Cellular Physiology

• Tissue, Organ, and Organ System Physiology

• Organism Physiology

Principle of Complementarity

Structure and function are interrelated: form follows function, and function reflects structure.

• What a structure can do depends on its form.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical

• Molecular

• Cellular

• Tissue

• Organ

• Organ System

• Organism

Organ Systems Overview

Integumentary System

• Creates boundary from external environment

• Protects deeper tissues, synthesizes vitamin D

• Regulates body temperature

• Houses receptors for touch and pain

• Sweat and oil glands

Skeletal System

• Protects and supports body organs

• Framework for muscle attachment

• Manufactures blood cells

• Stores minerals (e.g., calcium)

Muscular System

• Manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression

• Maintains posture, produces heat

Nervous System

• Fast-acting control system

• Responds to internal/external changes by activating muscles/glands

Endocrine System

• Hormone-secreting ductless glands

• Regulates growth, reproduction, nutrient use

Cardiovascular System

• Heart pumps blood

• Blood vessels transport oxygen, nutrients, wastes, CO2

Lymphatic/Immune System

• Returns leaked fluid to blood

• Disposes of debris

• Houses white blood cells

• Mounts immune response

Respiratory System

• Supplies oxygen, removes CO2

• Gas exchange in lungs

Digestive System

• Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients

• Eliminates indigestible food as feces

Urinary System

• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

• Regulates water, electrolytes, acid-base balance

Reproductive System

• Production of offspring

• Production of sex hormones

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining Boundaries: Separation of internal and external environments

• Movement: Muscular and skeletal movement, movement of substances

• Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli

• Digestion: Breakdown and absorption of food

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body

  • Anabolism: Synthesis of molecules

  • Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules

• Excretion: Removal of wastes

• Reproduction: Cellular and organismal reproduction

• Growth: Increase in size and number of cells

Survival Needs

• Nutrients

• Oxygen

• Water

• Normal body temperature

• Atmospheric pressure

Terminology for Anatomy

Normal Anatomic Position

• Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward

Directional Terms

• Superior: Toward the head

• Inferior: Away from the head

• Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front

• Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back

• Medial: Toward the midline

• Lateral: Away from the midline

• Proximal: Nearer to body core

• Distal: Farther from body core

• Superficial: Closer to the surface

• Deep: Further from the surface

• Ipsilateral: Same side

• Contralateral: Opposite side

Body Planes

• Median (midsagittal): Midline

• Frontal (coronal): Front/back division

• Transverse: Top/bottom division

Body Cavities

• Dorsal Cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities (protect nervous system)

• Ventral Cavity: Thoracic (pleural, pericardial, mediastinal) and abdominopelvic (abdominal, pelvic) cavities

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

• Regions: Right/Left Hypochondriac, Lumbar, Inguinal (Iliac), Epigastric, Umbilical, Hypogastric (Pubic)

• Quadrants: Right/Left Upper, Right/Left Lower

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.

• Nervous System: Fast-acting, uses nerve impulses

• Endocrine System: Slow-acting, uses hormones

Control Mechanisms

• Receptor (Sensor): Monitors environment, responds to stimuli

• Control Center: Determines set point, analyzes input, determines response

• Effector: Carries out response (muscle or gland)

Feedback Loops

• Negative Feedback: Reduces or shuts off stimulus, maintains homeostasis (e.g., body temperature regulation)

• Positive Feedback: Increases stimulus, usually short-lived (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions)

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Matter and Energy

• Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space

• States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas, plasma

• Energy: The ability to do work

  • Potential Energy: Stored energy

  • Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion

• Forms of Energy: Chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant

Atoms and Elements

• All matter is made of atoms

• Atoms have a nucleus (protons, neutrons) and electrons

• Atomic Number: Number of protons

• Atomic Weight: Number of protons + neutrons

• Elements are defined by atomic number; 118 elements in the periodic table

Inorganic Compounds

• Water: Most abundant, high heat capacity, polarity, chemical reactivity, cushioning

• Salts: Electrolytes, dissociate into ions, conduct electricity (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl-, Mg2+)

• Acids: Release hydrogen ions (proton donors)

• Bases: Accept hydrogen ions (proton acceptors), have hydroxide ions

• pH: Logarithmic scale (0-14), 7 is neutral, <7 acidic, >7 basic

Organic Compounds

• Contain carbon covalently bonded to other elements (H, O, N)

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches

  • Monosaccharides: Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose

  • Disaccharides: Sucrose, lactose, maltose

  • Polysaccharides: Glycogen (animal storage), starch (plant storage), cellulose (fiber)

• Lipids: Fats and oils

  • Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol

  • Triglycerides: 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids (energy storage)

  • Phospholipids: Cell membrane structure (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail)

  • Cholesterol: Membranes, hormones, myelin

• Proteins: Chains of amino acids

  • Primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary, quaternary structure

  • Functions: Structural (hair, nails), regulatory (hormones), contractile (muscle), transport (hemoglobin), immunological (antibodies), catalytic (enzymes)

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA (genetic information storage and transfer)

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, primary energy carrier in cells

The Cell

Cell Theory

• The cell is the smallest structural and functional living unit

• Organismal functions depend on cell functions

• Cells come from preexisting cells

Cell Structure

• Plasma Membrane: Flexible outer boundary

• Cytoplasm: Intracellular fluid with organelles

• Nucleus: Control center, contains genetic material

Nucleus Details

• Most cells have one nucleus (some have more)

• Parts: Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin (chromosomes), nucleoplasm

• Nucleolus: Site of ribosome synthesis

• Chromatin: DNA and proteins (histones), condenses to chromosomes during cell division

Cytoplasm and Organelles

• Mostly water (cytosol)

• Organelles: machinery of the cell (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes, granules, vacuoles)

• Golgi Apparatus: Packages proteins and fats for transport

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for breakdown of waste