Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definition and Scope

Anatomy and Physiology are foundational sciences that explore the structure and function of the human body. Anatomy focuses on the physical structures, while Physiology examines the processes and functions that sustain life.

• Anatomy: Study of body structures and their relationships.

• Physiology: Study of body functions, including all chemical and physical processes.

• Pathology: Study of disease and its effects on body structure and function.

Levels of Biological Organization

From Atoms to Organ Systems

The human body is organized hierarchically, from the smallest chemical units to complex organ systems.

• Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

Major Organ Systems and Their Functions

Overview of Key Systems

• Integumentary: Skin; protection and sensation.

• Musculoskeletal: Support, movement, and protection.

• Respiratory: Gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out).

• Digestive: Nutrient uptake and waste elimination.

• Urinary: Removal of excess water and wastes.

• Reproductive: Produces gametes and supports offspring.

• Circulatory: Pumps blood, distributes nutrients and gases.

• Nervous and Endocrine: Coordinate body functions and responses.

Biomolecules and Their Importance

Essential Elements and Biomolecules

• Essential elements for life: Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen.

• Biomolecules: Organic molecules essential for structure and function.

Classes of Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; energy source.

• Lipids: Fats and oils; energy storage, membrane structure.

• Proteins: Enzymes, structural components, signaling.

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; genetic information.

Functional Groups

• Common functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH2), and phosphate (-PO4).

Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds

Structure of the Atom

• Atoms: Composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Ions: Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge (cations: positive, anions: negative).

• Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Covalent bonds: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

• Non-covalent bonds: Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces.

• Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic: Water-loving vs. water-repelling interactions.

Solutions, Acids, and Bases

Solubility and pH

• Solution: Homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent.

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration;

• Acids: Donate H+ ions; Bases: Accept H+ ions.

Proteins and Enzymes

Protein Structure and Function

• Proteins: Polymers of amino acids; perform structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.

Enzyme Activity

• Active site: Region where substrate binds and reaction occurs.

• Factors affecting activity: Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors.

• Enzyme regulation: Control of enzyme concentrations, modulation of activity, compartmentalization.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Energy in Biological Systems

• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell.

• ADP + Pi + energy → ATP (phosphorylation)

• ATP → ADP + Pi + energy (hydrolysis)

Metabolic Pathways

• Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose in cytoplasm; produces ATP and NADH.

• Krebs Cycle: Occurs in mitochondria; produces CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH2.

• Electron Transport Chain: Uses NADH/FADH2 to generate ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.

Cell Structure and Function

Cell Types and Organelles

• Eukaryotic cells: Have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus).

• Prokaryotic cells: Lack nucleus; simpler structure.

• Major organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes.

Cytoskeleton and Extracellular Matrix

• Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments (microtubules, actin, intermediate filaments) for structure and movement.

• Extracellular matrix: Provides structural support to tissues.

Tissues of the Body

Primary Tissue Types

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities.

• Connective: Supports, binds, and protects organs.

• Muscle: Enables movement.

• Nervous: Transmits electrical signals.

Transport Across Cell Membranes

Types of Transport

• Passive transport: No energy required (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active transport: Requires energy (primary and secondary active transport).

• Vesicular transport: Endocytosis, exocytosis, transcytosis.

Diffusion and Osmosis

• Fick's Law of Diffusion:

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Osmolarity: Concentration of solute particles in solution.

Membrane Potential and Electrochemical Gradients

• Membrane potential: Separation of electrical charges across the cell membrane.

• Nernst equation:

Tables

Types of Chemical Reactions

Additional info:

• Some content was inferred and expanded for clarity and completeness, such as the detailed explanations of metabolic pathways and the Nernst equation.

• Tables and equations were recreated and formatted for clarity.