Skip to main content
Indietro

Photosynthesis, Cell Communication, and the Cell Cycle: Structured Study Notes

Guida di studio - Note intelligenti

Appunti personalizzati basati sui tuoi materiali, ampliati con definizioni chiave, esempi e contesto.

{"type":"doc","content":[{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 10: Photosynthesis"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 10.1: Photosynthesis Converts Light Energy to Chemical Energy"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms capture light energy and use it to produce energy-rich organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water. It is essential for life on Earth, providing the basis for most food chains."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Photosynthetic Organisms:"},{"type":"text","text":" Plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and certain other photosynthetic bacteria."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Overall Equation:"}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \\text{light energy} \\rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2"}}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Carbon dioxide (CO2):"},{"type":"text","text":" Supplies carbon for organic molecules."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Water (H2O):"},{"type":"text","text":" Supplies electrons for photosynthesis; oxygen released originates from water."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Light:"},{"type":"text","text":" Provides energy for the process."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Carbohydrates:"},{"type":"text","text":" Store chemical energy and provide carbon skeletons."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Oxygen (O2):"},{"type":"text","text":" Released when water is split."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Autotrophs:"},{"type":"text","text":" Produce organic molecules from inorganic carbon sources (e.g., plants, algae)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Heterotrophs:"},{"type":"text","text":" Obtain organic molecules by consuming other organisms (e.g., animals, fungi)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Photoautotrophs:"},{"type":"text","text":" Use light as their energy source."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photosynthesis as a Redox Process"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Oxidation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Loss of electrons (water is oxidized)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Reduction:"},{"type":"text","text":" Gain of electrons (CO2 is reduced)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Comparison:"},{"type":"text","text":" Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary but not exact reversals."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Location of Photosynthesis in Plants"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Structure"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Outer membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Forms the outer boundary of the chloroplast"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Inner membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Encloses the internal compartment"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stroma"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Fluid surrounding thylakoids; site of Calvin cycle"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thylakoid membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Contains photosystems, electron carriers, ATP synthase"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thylakoid lumen"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Internal space where protons accumulate"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Granum"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stack of thylakoids"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Light reactions:"},{"type":"text","text":" Occur in thylakoid membranes."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Calvin cycle:"},{"type":"text","text":" Occurs in stroma."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Two Major Stages of Photosynthesis"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Light Reactions:"},{"type":"text","text":" Capture light energy, split water, release oxygen, produce ATP and NADPH."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Calvin Cycle:"},{"type":"text","text":" Fix CO2, use ATP and NADPH, produce G3P (a three-carbon sugar)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 10.2: Light Reactions Convert Solar Energy to ATP and NADPH"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Nature of Sunlight"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Light is electromagnetic radiation; energy depends on wavelength."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"E = \\frac{hc}{\\lambda}"}}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Shorter wavelengths = higher energy photons."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Visible light: 400–700 nm."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pigments"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chlorophyll a:"},{"type":"text","text":" Primary pigment; absorbs blue-violet and red light."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chlorophyll b:"},{"type":"text","text":" Accessory pigment; broadens absorption range."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Carotenoids:"},{"type":"text","text":" Accessory pigments; absorb additional wavelengths, protect from excess light."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Absorption Spectrum vs. Action Spectrum"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Absorption spectrum:"},{"type":"text","text":" Wavelengths absorbed by a pigment."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Action spectrum:"},{"type":"text","text":" Effectiveness of wavelengths in driving photosynthesis."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photosystems"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Photosystem II (PSII):"},{"type":"text","text":" Acts first; absorbs light, excites electrons, splits water."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Photosystem I (PSI):"},{"type":"text","text":" Re-energizes electrons, reduces NADP+ to NADPH."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Linear Electron Flow"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Transfers electrons from water to NADP+."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Produces oxygen, ATP, NADPH."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Splitting Water"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"2H_2O \\rightarrow O_2 + 4H^+ + 4e^-"}}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water provides electrons; releases protons and oxygen."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Electron Transport and Proton Gradient"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Electron transport chain creates proton gradient across thylakoid membrane."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Proton-motive force drives ATP synthesis."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"ADP + P_i \\rightarrow ATP"}}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP synthase uses proton gradient to produce ATP (photophosphorylation)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cyclic Electron Flow"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involves PSI only; produces additional ATP, no NADPH or oxygen."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Linear vs. Cyclic Electron Flow"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Feature"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Linear Electron Flow"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cyclic Electron Flow"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photosystem II"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involved"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Not required"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photosystem I"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involved"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involved"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Electron source"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Recycled electrons"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Final electron acceptor"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"NADP+"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Returns to pathway"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP production"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"NADPH production"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Oxygen release"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP and NADPH Roles"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"ATP:"},{"type":"text","text":" Energy for cellular reactions."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"NADPH:"},{"type":"text","text":" Reducing power for biosynthesis."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 10.3: The Calvin Cycle Uses ATP and NADPH to Convert CO2 to Sugar"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Overview of the Calvin Cycle"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Occurs in chloroplast stroma."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Uses CO2, ATP, NADPH."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Produces G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Three Phases of the Calvin Cycle"}]},{"type":"orderedList","attrs":{"start":1,"type":null},"content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Carbon Fixation:"},{"type":"text","text":" RuBisCO attaches CO2 to RuBP; forms 3-PGA."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Reduction:"},{"type":"text","text":" ATP and NADPH convert 3-PGA to G3P."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Regeneration:"},{"type":"text","text":" G3P molecules regenerate RuBP; requires ATP."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Calvin Cycle Accounting"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Quantity"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Amount (per 3 CO2)"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"CO2 consumed"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"3"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP consumed"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"9"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"NADPH consumed"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Net G3P produced"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"1"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"3CO_2 + 9ATP + 6NADPH \\rightarrow 1\\,\\text{net}\\,G3P"}}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RuBisCO Importance"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RuBisCO catalyzes carbon fixation; abundant in plants."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Can react with O2, leading to photorespiration."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Fate of G3P"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Used to synthesize glucose, sucrose, starch, cellulose, and other molecules."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Integration of Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Light Reactions"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Calvin Cycle"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Produce ATP, NADPH, O2"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Consume ATP, NADPH; fix CO2"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Occur in thylakoid membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Occur in stroma"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Convert light energy to chemical energy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Build carbohydrate"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 10.4: Alternative Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photorespiration"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RuBisCO reacts with O2 instead of CO2 under high temperature, low CO2."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Consumes O2, releases CO2, uses energy, reduces efficiency."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"C3 Plants"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Use standard Calvin cycle; first product is 3-PGA."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Examples: Wheat, rice, soybeans."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photorespiration can reduce efficiency in hot, dry conditions."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"C4 Plants"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Adaptations reduce photorespiration; first product is four-carbon compound."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 in mesophyll cells; CO2 released in bundle-sheath cells for Calvin cycle."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Examples: Corn, sugarcane."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Requires extra ATP but increases efficiency in hot, sunny environments."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"CAM Plants"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Crassulacean acid metabolism; stomata open at night, CO2 fixed and stored as organic acids."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"During day, CO2 released for Calvin cycle; conserves water."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Examples: Cacti, agaves, succulents."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"C3 vs. C4 vs. CAM Comparison"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Feature"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"C3"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"C4"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"CAM"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"First product"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"3-carbon"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"4-carbon"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"4-carbon"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Initial enzyme"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RuBisCO"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"PEP carboxylase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"PEP carboxylase"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Separation"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"None"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Spatial"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Temporal"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stomata open"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Day"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Day"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Night"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Photorespiration"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Substantial"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Reduced"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Reduced"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Adaptation"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Moderate"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hot, sunny"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Very dry"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"italic"}],"text":"Additional info:"},{"type":"text","text":" C4 plants separate fixation spatially; CAM plants temporally."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 11: Cell Communication"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 11.1: External Signals Are Converted into Cellular Responses"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cell communication enables cells to detect and respond to signals from their environment or other cells, coordinating processes such as growth, metabolism, and division."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Three Stages:"},{"type":"text","text":" Reception, transduction, response."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Types of Signaling:"},{"type":"text","text":" Direct contact, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine."}]}]}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Signaling Type"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Distance"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Example"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Direct contact"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Adjacent cells"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cell-surface recognition"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Paracrine"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nearby cells"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Growth factors"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Synaptic"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Across synapse"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Neurotransmitters"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Endocrine"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Distant cells"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormones"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ligands:"},{"type":"text","text":" Molecules that bind to receptors."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Receptors:"},{"type":"text","text":" Proteins that recognize signals and initiate responses."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Water-soluble signals:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bind to membrane receptors."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lipid-soluble signals:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cross membrane, bind to intracellular receptors."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 11.2: Reception — Signal Molecule Binds to Receptor Protein"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Receptor Activation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ligand binding changes receptor activity/conformation."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs):"},{"type":"text","text":" Activate G proteins, which act as molecular switches."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs):"},{"type":"text","text":" Phosphorylate tyrosine residues, activate signaling cascades."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ligand-Gated Ion Channels:"},{"type":"text","text":" Open/close in response to ligand, regulate ion movement."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Intracellular Receptors:"},{"type":"text","text":" Often regulate gene expression directly."}]}]}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Receptor Type"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Location"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Main Mechanism"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"GPCR"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Plasma membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Activates G protein"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RTK"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Plasma membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Phosphorylates tyrosine"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Ligand-gated ion channel"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Plasma membrane"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Opens/closes channel"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Intracellular receptor"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cytoplasm/nucleus"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Regulates transcription"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 11.3: Transduction — Molecular Interactions Relay Signals"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Signal Transduction:"},{"type":"text","text":" Conversion of signal to intracellular events."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Protein Phosphorylation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Kinases add phosphate groups; phosphatases remove them."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Second Messengers:"},{"type":"text","text":" Small molecules/ions relaying signals (e.g., cAMP, Ca2+, IP3, DAG)."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"\\text{ATP} \\rightarrow \\text{cAMP}"}},{"type":"text","text":" (via adenylyl cyclase)"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Signal Amplification:"},{"type":"text","text":" One molecule triggers many downstream responses."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Specificity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Depends on receptor, signaling proteins, cell state."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Termination:"},{"type":"text","text":" Removal/inactivation of signal, breakdown of messengers."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 11.4: Response — Regulation of Transcription or Cytoplasmic Activities"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cellular Responses:"},{"type":"text","text":" Changes in gene expression, enzyme activity, membrane permeability, cytoskeleton, secretion, growth, division, survival."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Transcription Regulation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Activation of transcription factors, changes in gene expression."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cytoplasmic Activity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Rapid changes in existing proteins, ion channels, cytoskeleton."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Multiple Responses:"},{"type":"text","text":" One signal can activate several pathways."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 11.5: Apoptosis — Programmed Cell Death"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Apoptosis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Regulated cell death; important for development, removing damaged/unneeded cells, maintaining homeostasis."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Characteristics:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, membrane blebbing, apoptotic bodies."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Caspases:"},{"type":"text","text":" Proteases central to apoptosis; initiator caspases activate executioner caspases."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Apoptosis and Cancer:"},{"type":"text","text":" Loss of apoptosis can contribute to cancer development."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 12.1: Most Cell Division Results in Genetically Identical Daughter Cells"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cell Division:"},{"type":"text","text":" Produces new cells for growth, repair, replacement, asexual reproduction."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chromosomes:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA and proteins; carry genetic information."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chromatin:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA-protein complex; less condensed during interphase."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chromosome Duplication:"},{"type":"text","text":" S phase; produces sister chromatids."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Centromere:"},{"type":"text","text":" Region for chromatid cohesion and segregation."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Kinetochore:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protein structure at centromere; attaches to spindle."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mitotic Spindle:"},{"type":"text","text":" Microtubule structure for chromosome separation."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 12.2: The Mitotic Phase Alternates with Interphase"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cell Cycle:"},{"type":"text","text":" Interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitotic phase."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Interphase:"},{"type":"text","text":" G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation for mitosis)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mitotic Phase:"},{"type":"text","text":" Mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stages of Mitosis"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stage"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"What Happens?"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prophase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosomes condense"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prometaphase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nuclear envelope breaks down; spindle attaches"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Metaphase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosomes align at metaphase plate"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Anaphase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sister chromatids separate"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Telophase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"New nuclei form"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cytokinesis"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Animal cells:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cleavage furrow, actin-myosin ring."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Plant cells:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cell plate formation, vesicle fusion."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosome Number and DNA Content"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stage"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosome Count"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromatid Count"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"G1"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"After S phase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"12"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Metaphase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"12"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"After separation"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"12"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"12"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Daughter cell"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mitosis vs. Meiosis"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Feature"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mitosis"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Meiosis"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Main role"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Growth, repair, asexual reproduction"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Production of haploid gametes/spores"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nuclear divisions"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"One"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Two"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Products"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Two daughter cells"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Four haploid products"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosome number"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Maintained"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Halved"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Genetic similarity"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Similar"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Varied"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homolog pairing"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes (meiosis I)"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concept 12.3: The Cell Cycle Is Regulated by a Molecular Control System"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Regulation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ensures division occurs at appropriate times/conditions."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Checkpoints:"},{"type":"text","text":" G1 (before DNA replication), G2 (after DNA replication), M (spindle attachment)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cyclins:"},{"type":"text","text":" Regulatory proteins; concentrations change during cycle."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs):"},{"type":"text","text":" Enzymes phosphorylating targets; activity depends on cyclins."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"MPF:"},{"type":"text","text":" Maturation-promoting factor; cyclin-CDK complex for mitosis entry."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Internal/External Signals:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA replication, damage, spindle attachment, growth factors, nutrients, anchorage."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Growth Factors:"},{"type":"text","text":" Stimulate cell division via signaling pathways."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"conte

Pearson Logo

Study Prep