Psychological Science

Five Schools of Psychology

The field of psychology has evolved through several major schools of thought, each with distinct approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

• Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the structure of consciousness using introspection. Example: Describing sounds by their quality, loudness, and feelings evoked. Founders: Wundt, Titchener

• Functionalism: Examines the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior for adaptation. Example: Fear evolved to aid survival (adaptive function). Inspired by: Darwin

• Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior only, focusing on effects of rewards and punishments. Example: Rat presses lever for food; reinforcement shapes behavior. Founders: Watson, Skinner

• Psychodynamic: Investigates unconscious drives and repressed childhood conflicts. Example: Therapist helps patient uncover repressed memories influencing current anxiety. Founder: Freud

• Cognitivism: Explores mental processes like thinking, memory, and decision-making. Example: Child problem-solving strategies; brain as information processor. Founders: Piaget, Miller

Matching Examples from Lecture Scenarios

• Structuralism: Describe sounds → quality, loudness, feelings + introspection

• Cognitivism: Child problem-solving changes → brain as information processor → mental processes

• Psychodynamic: Therapist explores repressed childhood memories → Freud

• Functionalism: Fear evolved to aid survival + adaptive function

• Behaviorism: Rat presses lever for food + reinforcement shapes behavior

Research Methods

Types of Relationships

Understanding the relationship between variables is central to psychological research. Relationships can be classified as follows:

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together (e.g., time spent studying & exam score).

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Zero Correlation: No relationship (e.g., shoe size & exam score).

• Curvilinear Relationship: Relationship increases then decreases (e.g., number of tennis balls & dog happiness – diminishing returns).

Research Designs

Psychological research employs several key designs, each suited to different types of questions and data.

Correlation ≠ Causation: Only experiments can show cause-and-effect because they manipulate variables and use random assignment.

Design Activities (Class Examples)

• "Love Is Blind" Example:

  • Research Question: Can people fall in love without seeing each other?

  • IV: Visual access (see partner vs not see partner)

  • DV: Relationship outcomes / marriage decision / self-reported closeness

  • Design note: Must manipulate IV and measure DV to qualify as an experiment.

• "Squid Game" Example:

  • Explores how media uses "social experiment" loosely; real experiments require controlled conditions and ethical consent.

Identifying the Design from Scenarios

Concept Checks & Application Tips

• Naturalistic Observation: Watch only; no interference.

• Case Study: In-depth on one subject.

• Survey: Ask people directly.

• Correlational: Measure two variables to see if related.

• Experimental: Actively change something; see effect.

Core Definitions for Research

Variables and Experimental Terms

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher (cause).

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured (effect or outcome).

• Confound: An extraneous variable that may affect the DV, making it difficult to interpret results.

Example Equation:

• Experimental design:

Study Strategy for the Exam

Recommended Steps

1. Focus on lecture content only (test is lecture-based).

2. Review each topic’s core definitions and examples.

3. Know the five schools and their key differences.

4. Understand research method terms (IV, DV, confounds, types).

5. Practice writing short answers: Apply a concept to a new example.

6. Don’t memorize iClicker questions; focus on concepts.

7. Apply concepts creatively: Use reality-show examples for method application.

Summary Checklist (Before Exam)

• Five schools of psychology: key founders and concepts

• Correlation types (+ / – / zero / curvilinear)

• Identify research method from scenario

• IV vs DV vs confound

• Experimental vs correlational study

• Ethical considerations (basic awareness)

• Short answer practice (define + apply)

Sample Questions & Applications

Example Multiple Choice Questions

• Confirmation Bias: Believing one’s friendship is based on perfect communication despite evidence to the contrary.

• Positive Correlation: Time spent studying & exam score.

• Experimental Design: To test if lecture attendance causes better exam performance, use random assignment and manipulate attendance.

Research Method Identification

• Observing children’s behavior without interference: Naturalistic Observation

• Studying a single patient’s recovery: Case Study

• Surveying attitudes via questionnaire: Survey / Self-Report

• Testing effects of manipulated variables: Experimental Design

Additional info: Some context and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness, based on standard introductory psychology curriculum.