Q1. What three things does psychology study?

Background

Topic: Scope of Psychology

This question is testing your understanding of the main areas that psychology investigates.

Key Terms:

• Mind: Refers to mental processes, thoughts, and feelings.

• Brain: The biological organ responsible for mental processes.

• Behaviour: Observable actions and responses.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider what psychology as a science aims to understand and explain.

2. Think about both internal (mental and biological) and external (observable) aspects.

3. Identify the three main domains: mental processes, biological bases, and observable actions.

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Q2. What does multiple levels of analysis mean?

Background

Topic: Levels of Analysis in Psychology

This question is about how psychological phenomena can be studied from different perspectives or levels.

Key Terms:

• Levels of Analysis: Different ways of examining psychological phenomena, such as biological, psychological, and social/cultural.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how a single behaviour or mental process can be explained in more than one way.

2. Identify the three main levels: biological (brain, genetics), psychological (thoughts, emotions), and social/cultural (influences from society).

3. Consider how these levels interact to provide a comprehensive understanding.

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Q3. Give an example of a behaviour explained at several levels.

Background

Topic: Levels of Analysis Applied

This question asks you to apply the concept of multiple levels of analysis to a specific behaviour.

Key Terms:

• Behaviour: Any observable action.

• Levels of Analysis: Biological, psychological, and social/cultural explanations.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Choose a behaviour (e.g., anxiety, aggression, eating).

2. Identify a biological explanation (e.g., genetics, brain chemistry).

3. Identify a psychological explanation (e.g., thoughts, emotions).

4. Identify a social/cultural explanation (e.g., societal expectations, cultural norms).

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Q4. What does multiply determined mean?

Background

Topic: Complexity of Behaviour

This question is about the idea that behaviour is influenced by many factors.

Key Terms:

• Multiply Determined: Behaviour is caused by multiple influences.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why it is difficult to explain behaviour with a single cause.

2. Think about how biological, psychological, and social factors can all contribute.

3. Reflect on examples where more than one factor is involved.

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Q5. Why do individual differences make behaviour difficult to predict?

Background

Topic: Individual Differences

This question is about how variability among people affects psychological predictions.

Key Terms:

• Individual Differences: Variations among people in behaviour, thinking, and emotion.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how people respond differently to the same situation.

2. Consider factors like personality, experience, and genetics.

3. Reflect on why predictions are less reliable when people differ greatly.

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Q6. What is naïve realism?

Background

Topic: Biases in Perception

This question is about a common cognitive bias in how we perceive reality.

Key Terms:

• Naïve Realism: Believing that our perceptions reflect reality exactly.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how people often trust their own perceptions without questioning them.

2. Think about how perception can be influenced by personal biases or perspectives.

3. Reflect on why this belief can lead to misunderstandings.

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Q7. Why isn't common sense always reliable?

Background

Topic: Common Sense and Bias

This question is about the limitations of relying on common sense in psychology.

Key Terms:

• Common Sense: Intuitive beliefs or assumptions.

• Bias: Systematic errors in thinking.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how common sense can be influenced by personal beliefs and cultural norms.

2. Consider how biases can make common sense seem obvious even when evidence does not support it.

3. Reflect on examples where common sense has been contradicted by scientific evidence.

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Q8. What is empiricism?

Background

Topic: Scientific Method

This question is about the foundation of scientific inquiry in psychology.

Key Terms:

• Empiricism: The idea that knowledge is acquired through observation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how scientists gather evidence.

2. Think about the importance of observation and experimentation.

3. Reflect on how empiricism contrasts with intuition or authority.

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Q9. What is a hypothesis?

Background

Topic: Scientific Method

This question is about the role of hypotheses in scientific research.

Key Terms:

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about what will happen.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how researchers make predictions before conducting studies.

2. Consider the importance of testability and specificity.

3. Reflect on how hypotheses guide research design.

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Q10. What is a scientific theory?

Background

Topic: Scientific Method

This question is about the nature of scientific theories in psychology.

Key Terms:

• Scientific Theory: An explanation for findings in the natural world that explains and forecasts many events and is supported by multiple lines of evidence.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how theories differ from hypotheses.

2. Think about the role of evidence and prediction in theories.

3. Reflect on how theories organize and explain findings.

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Q11. What is confirmation bias?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Biases

This question is about a common bias in how people process information.

Key Terms:

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek, notice, or interpret information in ways that support what we already believe.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how people tend to favor information that confirms their beliefs.

2. Consider how this bias can affect research and everyday thinking.

3. Reflect on examples where confirmation bias has influenced decisions.

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Q12. What is belief perseverance?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Biases

This question is about the tendency to hold onto beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

Key Terms:

• Belief Perseverance: Maintaining a belief even after evidence has been discredited.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how people react when their beliefs are challenged.

2. Think about why it is difficult to change beliefs even with new evidence.

3. Reflect on examples of belief perseverance in everyday life.

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Q13. What is pseudoscience?

Background

Topic: Scientific Thinking

This question is about distinguishing science from pseudoscience.

Key Terms:

• Pseudoscience: Claims that seem scientific but lack adequate safeguards against bias.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider what makes a claim scientific.

2. Think about the importance of evidence and self-correction.

3. Reflect on how pseudoscience differs from genuine science.

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Q14. Name two warning signs of pseudoscience.

Background

Topic: Scientific Thinking

This question is about identifying features that distinguish pseudoscience from real science.

Key Terms:

• Ad hoc immunizing hypotheses: Explanations added after the fact to protect a claim.

• Lack of self-correction: Failure to update claims when evidence changes.

• Overreliance on anecdotes: Using personal stories instead of systematic evidence.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the main features of pseudoscience discussed in class or your textbook.

2. Identify at least two warning signs, such as explanations added after the fact or reliance on personal stories.

3. Consider why these signs undermine scientific credibility.

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Q15. What is an ad hoc immunizing hypothesis?

Background

Topic: Scientific Thinking

This question is about a specific tactic used to protect pseudoscientific claims.

Key Terms:

• Ad hoc immunizing hypothesis: An explanation added after the fact to protect a claim from being disproved.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how claims can be protected from criticism by adding new explanations.

2. Consider why this tactic is problematic for scientific credibility.

3. Reflect on examples where ad hoc hypotheses have been used.

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Q16. Why are anecdotes weak evidence?

Background

Topic: Scientific Evidence

This question is about the limitations of anecdotal evidence in science.

Key Terms:

• Anecdote: A personal story or individual experience.

• Generalizability: Whether findings apply broadly.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why a single person's experience may not represent the general population.

2. Think about the importance of systematic evidence and replication.

3. Reflect on how anecdotes can be misleading.

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Q17. What is patternicity?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Biases

This question is about the tendency to perceive patterns where none exist.

Key Terms:

• Patternicity: The tendency to perceive meaningful patterns or connections, including patterns that may not actually exist.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how humans are naturally inclined to look for patterns.

2. Consider why this can lead to false beliefs or superstitions.

3. Reflect on examples of patternicity in everyday life.

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Q18. Emotional reasoning vs. appeal to authority?

Background

Topic: Logical Fallacies

This question is about two common logical fallacies in evaluating evidence.

Key Terms:

• Emotional Reasoning: Treating feelings as evidence that something is true.

• Appeal to Authority: Treating a person's status or authority as sufficient evidence.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Compare how each fallacy uses non-evidence-based reasoning.

2. Identify the difference: one relies on emotion, the other on authority.

3. Reflect on why both are problematic for scientific thinking.

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Q19. What is the correlation-causation fallacy?

Background

Topic: Logical Fallacies

This question is about a common error in interpreting relationships between variables.

Key Terms:

• Correlation: A relationship between two variables.

• Causation: One variable directly causes another.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how two variables can be related without one causing the other.

2. Think about examples where correlation does not imply causation.

3. Reflect on why this fallacy is important in scientific research.

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Q20. Why rule out rival hypotheses?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the importance of considering alternative explanations.

Key Terms:

• Rival Hypotheses: Alternative explanations for a finding.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Think about how multiple explanations can account for the same result.

2. Consider why ruling out alternatives strengthens scientific conclusions.

3. Reflect on examples where failing to rule out rivals led to weak conclusions.

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Q21. What does falsifiable mean?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the requirement that scientific claims can be tested and potentially disproved.

Key Terms:

• Falsifiable: A claim is falsifiable if some possible evidence or observation could show it to be false.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why testability is important in science.

2. Think about how a claim must be open to being disproved.

3. Reflect on examples of non-falsifiable claims.

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Q22. Why is replicability important?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the importance of being able to reproduce scientific findings.

Key Terms:

• Replicability: The ability to reproduce a finding when the study is repeated.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why a single study is not enough to establish a finding.

2. Think about how replication helps determine reliability.

3. Reflect on examples where replication failed and findings were questioned.

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Q23. What does 'extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence' mean?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the standard for evaluating unusual or surprising claims.

Key Terms:

• Extraordinary Claims: Claims that are especially unusual or surprising.

• Extraordinary Evidence: Strong, compelling evidence needed to support such claims.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why more surprising claims need stronger evidence.

2. Think about the risk of accepting extraordinary claims without sufficient proof.

3. Reflect on examples of extraordinary claims in science.

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Q24. What is Occam's Razor?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the principle of preferring simpler explanations.

Key Terms:

• Occam's Razor: Prefer the simpler explanation when several fit the evidence.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why simplicity is valued in scientific explanations.

2. Think about how multiple explanations can fit the same evidence.

3. Reflect on examples where Occam's Razor has been applied.

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Q25. Why does generalizability matter?

Background

Topic: Principles of Scientific Thinking

This question is about the importance of applying findings beyond the specific study.

Key Terms:

• Generalizability: Whether findings apply beyond the specific people or circumstances studied.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider why researchers want their findings to apply broadly.

2. Think about the limitations of studies with narrow samples.

3. Reflect on examples where lack of generalizability limited the usefulness of findings.

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Q26. Which perspective focused on basic elements of conscious experience and used introspection?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the early schools of thought in psychology.

Key Terms:

• Structuralism: Focused on basic elements of consciousness.

• Introspection: Examining one's own thoughts and feelings.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which early perspective used introspection as a method.

2. Identify the school that aimed to break down consciousness into basic elements.

3. Reflect on the main figures associated with this perspective.

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Q27. Which perspective emphasized adaptive purposes and was influenced by Darwin?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the school of thought that focused on the functions of behaviour.

Key Terms:

• Functionalism: Emphasized adaptive purposes of behaviour.

• Darwin: Influenced the focus on adaptation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which perspective was influenced by evolutionary theory.

2. Identify the school that focused on the purpose of mental processes.

3. Reflect on the main figures associated with this perspective.

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Q28. Which perspective focused on observable behaviour and learning?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the school of thought that emphasized observable actions.

Key Terms:

• Behaviourism: Focused on observable behaviour and learning.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which perspective rejected introspection and focused on observable actions.

2. Identify the school that studied learning processes.

3. Reflect on the main figures associated with this perspective.

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Q29. Which perspective emphasizes thoughts and other mental processes?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the school of thought that studies internal mental processes.

Key Terms:

• Cognitivism: Emphasizes thoughts and mental processes.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which perspective focuses on how people think, remember, and solve problems.

2. Identify the school that studies internal processes.

3. Reflect on the main figures associated with this perspective.

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Q30. Which perspective emphasizes unconscious processes and impulses?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the school of thought that focuses on unconscious influences.

Key Terms:

• Psychoanalysis: Emphasizes unconscious processes and impulses.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which perspective was founded by Freud.

2. Identify the school that studies unconscious motives.

3. Reflect on the main figures associated with this perspective.

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Q31. What is cognitive neuroscience?

Background

Topic: Major Perspectives in Psychology

This question is about the interdisciplinary study of mental processes and brain function.

Key Terms:

• Cognitive Neuroscience: Study of mental processes in relation to brain function.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how mental processes are linked to the brain and nervous system.

2. Think about the methods used to study these links (e.g., brain imaging).

3. Reflect on the importance of this field for understanding cognition.

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Q32. What is the nature–nurture debate?

Background

Topic: Great Debates in Psychology

This question is about the debate over biological vs. environmental influences.

Key Terms:

• Nature: Biological/genetic influences.

• Nurture: Environmental/learning influences.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider what each side of the debate argues.

2. Think about examples of traits influenced by nature and nurture.

3. Reflect on why this debate is important in psychology.

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Q33. What is the modern view of nature and nurture?

Background

Topic: Great Debates in Psychology

This question is about the current understanding of how nature and nurture interact.

Key Terms:

• Interaction: Both nature and nurture influence behaviour.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how modern psychology views the relationship between genetics and environment.

2. Think about examples where both factors play a role.

3. Reflect on why the interaction is important.

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Q34. What is the free will–determinism debate?

Background

Topic: Great Debates in Psychology

This question is about whether behaviour is freely chosen or determined by outside factors.

Key Terms:

• Free Will: The ability to choose actions independently.

• Determinism: Behaviour is determined by factors outside conscious control.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider what each side of the debate argues.

2. Think about examples of behaviour that may be freely chosen or determined.

3. Reflect on why this debate is important in psychology.

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Q35. How can psychological research help evaluate everyday claims?

Background

Topic: Psychology in Daily Life

This question is about the value of scientific research for evaluating claims.

Key Terms:

• Systematic Evidence: Evidence gathered through scientific methods.

• Bias: Systematic errors in thinking.

• Alternative Explanations: Other possible reasons for a finding.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Consider how research provides systematic evidence.

2. Think about how research can identify biases and weak evidence.

3. Reflect on the importance of ruling out alternative explanations.

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Q36. One-Minute Challenge: Critique the claim “I started taking this supplement and my anxiety disappeared within two weeks. Therefore, the supplement cures anxiety.”

Background

Topic: Evaluating Evidence and Claims

This question is about applying scientific thinking to critique anecdotal claims.

Key Terms:

• Anecdote: Personal experience.

• Temporal Relationship: Events occurring together in time.

• Alternative Explanations: Other possible causes.

• Generalizability: Applicability to others.

• Replication: Repeating findings.

• Confirmation Bias: Noticing evidence that supports beliefs.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Identify the type of evidence used (anecdote).

2. Consider whether the claim establishes causation or just correlation.

3. Think about alternative explanations for the improvement.

4. Reflect on the importance of generalizability and replication.

5. Consider how confirmation bias may affect perception of improvement.

Try critiquing the claim on your own before revealing the answer!