Memory

Definition and Key Processes

Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time. It allows us to retain and recall past experiences and knowledge.

• Encoding: Getting information into our brain.

• Storage: Retaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Getting information out of storage when needed.

Getting Information In

• Automatic processing: Refers to unconscious encoding of incidental information.

• Attention: Critical for encoding; focusing on a narrow range of stimuli improves memory, while multitasking reduces performance.

Levels of Processing

• Structural encoding: Encoding the physical structure of stimuli (e.g., images).

• Phonetic encoding: Encoding the sound of words.

• Semantic encoding: Encoding the meaning of words and concepts.

Improving Encoding

• Elaboration: Linking new information to existing knowledge.

• Visual imagery: Creating mental pictures to represent information.

• Motivation to remember: Extra effort to organize and encode information for future recall.

Memory Storage

• Sensory Memory: Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief period (about 0.25 seconds).

• Short-term Memory: Limited capacity; information is retained for about 20 seconds unless actively rehearsed.

• Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units to enhance short-term memory capacity.

• Long-term Memory: Unlimited capacity; stores information for extended periods. Memories are more vivid if associated with intense emotions (e.g., flashbulb memories).

Types of Memory

• Declarative Memory: Facts and events.

  • Episodic memory: Personal experiences with time stamps.

  • Semantic memory: General knowledge not tied to specific times.

• Non-declarative Memory: Skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike).

Retrieval

• Retrieval cues: Stimuli that help access memories.

• Context: Placing oneself in the context of encoding improves retrieval.

• Schemas: Organized clusters of knowledge based on previous experiences.

• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference can hinder recall.

Retention

• Recall: Reproducing information without cues.

• Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from options.

• Relearning: Memorizing information again to measure retention.

Cognition

Definition and Concepts

Cognition encompasses all mental activities related to thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

• Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people.

• Prototypes: Best examples of a concept; recognition is faster when something matches a prototype.

Problem Solving

• Active efforts to discover solutions to achieve goals.

• Types of problems:

  • Problems of Inducing Structure: Discovering relationships among items.

  • Problems of Arrangement: Arranging parts to satisfy a criterion.

  • Problems of Transformation: Carrying out a sequence of changes to reach a goal.

Barriers to Problem Solving

• Irrelevant information

• Functional fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

• Mental set: Tendency to approach problems in a particular way.

Approaches to Problem Solving

• Trial and error: Trying possible solutions until one works.

• Heuristics: Simple strategies or rules of thumb, such as forming sub-goals, searching for analogies, or taking breaks.

Decision Making

• Evaluating alternatives and making choices.

• Theory of Bounded Rationality: People use simple strategies and may not make optimal decisions.

• Heuristics in Decision Making:

  • Representativeness heuristic: Judging likelihood by similarity to prototypes.

  • Availability heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on memory availability.

• Common flaws: Ignoring base rates, gambler's fallacy, overestimating the improbable, loss aversion.

Intelligence

Definition and Early History

Intelligence is a socially constructed concept involving the ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

• Francis Galton: Explored hereditary aspects of intelligence; coined "nature vs nurture".

Modern Testing Movement

• Alfred Binet: Developed the first intelligence test to identify children needing educational support.

• Lewis Terman: Revised Binet's test for use in the U.S. (Stanford-Binet).

Measuring Intelligence

• IQ (Intelligence Quotient): $\text{IQ} = \frac{\text{Mental Age}}{\text{Chronological Age}} \times 100$

• WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale): Most commonly used intelligence test for adults.

• Standardization: Scores are compared to a pretested group; most scores fall near the mean (100), with a standard deviation of 15.

• Reliability: Consistency of test results.

• Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

• Average IQ scores have increased over generations, possibly due to environmental factors.

Theories of Intelligence

• Sternberg's Triarchic Theory:

  • Analytical intelligence: Academic problem-solving.

  • Creative intelligence: Generating new ideas.

  • Practical intelligence: Dealing with everyday tasks.

• Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic abilities.

Genetics and Intelligence

• Studies of twins suggest a genetic component to intelligence, but environment also plays a significant role.

• Adopted children's IQs resemble their adoptive parents less over time.

Learning

How We Learn

• Learning is the process of acquiring new associations.

• Associative learning links events that occur together.

• Two main types: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov with dogs.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural, unlearned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after association.

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition: Initial learning of the association.

• Extinction: Diminished response when the US no longer follows the CS.

• Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

• Generalization: Tendency to respond similarly to stimuli resembling the CS.

• Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between CS and other stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

• Organisms associate actions with consequences.

• Reinforcers: Increase the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishers: Decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

• Shaping: Gradually guiding actions toward a desired behavior.

Types of Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing every response.

• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: Reinforcing only some responses; leads to greater resistance to extinction.

Observational Learning

• Learning by observing others (modeling).

• Demonstrated by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.

Additional info:

• Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.

• Tables and formulas have been described in text or LaTeX as appropriate.