Psychological Science

Five Schools of Psychology

The field of psychology has developed through several major schools of thought, each with distinct approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

• Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the structure of consciousness using introspection. Founders: Wundt, Titchener. Example: Describing sounds by their quality, loudness, and feelings evoked.

• Functionalism: Examines the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior for adaptation. Inspired by: Darwin. Example: Fear evolved to aid survival (adaptive function).

• Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior only, emphasizing the effects of rewards and punishments. Founders: Watson, Skinner. Example: Rat presses lever for food; reinforcement shapes behavior.

• Psychodynamic: Investigates unconscious drives and repressed childhood conflicts. Founder: Freud. Example: Therapist helps patient uncover repressed memories influencing current anxiety.

• Cognitivism: Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, decision-making. Founders: Piaget, Miller. Example: Child problem-solving changes as the brain develops; brain as information processor.

Matching Examples from Lecture Scenarios

• Structuralism: Describe sounds → quality, loudness, feelings + introspection

• Cognitivism: Child problem-solving changes → brain as information processor → mental processes

• Psychodynamic: Therapist explores repressed childhood memories → Freud

• Functionalism: Fear evolved to aid survival → adaptive function

• Behaviorism: Rat presses lever for food → reinforcement shapes behavior

Research Methods

Types of Relationships

Understanding the relationship between variables is central to psychological research. Relationships can be classified as follows:

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together (e.g., time spent studying & exam score).

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Zero Correlation: No relationship (e.g., shoe size & exam score).

• Curvilinear Relationship: Relationship increases then decreases (e.g., number of tennis balls & dog happiness—"diminishing returns").

Research Designs

Psychological research uses several key designs to investigate questions about behavior and mental processes.

Correlation ≠ Causation: Only experiments can show cause-and-effect because they manipulate variables and use random assignment.

Design Activities (Class Examples)

• "Love Is Blind" Example: Research Question: Can people fall in love without seeing each other? IV: Visual access (see partner vs not see partner) DV: Relationship outcomes / marriage decision / self-reported closeness Design note: Must manipulate IV and measure DV to qualify as an experiment.

• "Squid Game" Example: Explores how media uses "social experiment" loosely; real experiments require controlled conditions and ethical consent.

Identifying the Design from Scenarios

Core Definitions for Short Answers

• Operational Definition: Specifies exactly how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study.

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is measured to assess the effect of the IV.

• Confound: An extraneous variable that could influence the DV, making it difficult to interpret results.

How to Differentiate Key Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Watch only; no interference.

• Case Study: In-depth on one subject.

• Survey: Ask people directly.

• Correlational: Measure two variables to see if related.

• Experimental: Actively change something; see effect.

Study Strategy for the Exam

• Focus on lecture content only.

• Review each topic’s core definitions and examples.

• Know the five schools well and their key differences.

• Understand research method terms (IV, DV, confounds, types).

• Practice writing short answers: Apply a concept to a new example.

• Don’t memorize iClicker questions; focus on concepts.

• Apply concepts creatively: Reality-show examples mirror exam application style.

Summary Checklist (before Oct 21)

• 5 schools of psychology + key founders and concepts

• Correlation types (+ / – / zero / curvilinear)

• Identify research method from scenario

• IV vs DV vs confound

• Experiment vs correlational study

• Ethical considerations (basic awareness)

• Short answer practice (define + apply)

Sample Questions & Applications

Example Multiple Choice Questions

• Hindsight Bias: Believing you "knew it all along" after learning the outcome.

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

• Experimental Design: Used when testing if one variable causes changes in another (e.g., lecture attendance causes better exam performance).

• Correlational Design: Used when examining if two variables are related (e.g., lecture attendance is related to exam performance).

Equations & Formulas

• Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

• Experimental Design: Manipulate IV, measure DV.

Additional info: Some context and examples were inferred from standard introductory psychology curriculum and the provided images.