Chapter 12 – Social Psychology

Definition of Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It explores how the presence, thoughts, and actions of others influence our own attitudes and actions.

• Key Point: Social psychology examines both individual and group influences on behavior.

• Example: Studying why people conform to group norms or help others in emergencies.

Conformity and Groupthink

Conformity refers to changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, often due to real or imagined group pressure. Groupthink is a phenomenon where the desire for group harmony leads to poor decision-making.

• Conformity: Illustrated by Solomon Asch's line experiment, where individuals conformed to incorrect group judgments.

• Groupthink: Occurs when group members suppress dissenting opinions to maintain consensus, often resulting in flawed decisions.

Psychology of Cults

Cults are groups with intense devotion to a leader or cause, often employing manipulative techniques to control members' thoughts and behaviors.

• Key Point: Cults use social influence, isolation, and indoctrination to maintain control.

Social Categorization and Stereotypes

Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on shared characteristics. Stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs about members of a group.

• Key Point: Stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

• Example: Assuming all members of a group share the same traits.

Attitudes

Attitudes are learned tendencies to evaluate objects, people, or issues in a certain way. They consist of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.

• Key Point: Attitudes can influence behavior and are shaped by experience and socialization.

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group, while discrimination is the behavior that results from such attitudes.

• Key Point: Prejudice is often based on stereotypes and can lead to unfair treatment (discrimination).

Bystander Effect

The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

• Key Point: Diffusion of responsibility explains why people may not intervene.

• Example: The case of Kitty Genovese, where multiple witnesses did not help during an attack.

Chapter 13 – Personality

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective (Freud)

Freud's theory emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts as drivers of personality and behavior.

• Key Point: Personality is shaped by early childhood experiences and unconscious processes.

Iceberg Theory (Three Parts of Awareness)

Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, with conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels.

• Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions we are aware of.

• Preconscious: Memories and knowledge easily brought to awareness.

• Unconscious: Fears, desires, and memories outside conscious awareness.

Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud proposed three interacting systems of personality:

• Id: Primitive, instinctual drives (pleasure principle).

• Ego: Rational, mediates between id and reality (reality principle).

• Superego: Moral conscience, internalized societal rules.

Dream Analysis, Free Association, Defense Mechanisms

Freud used dream analysis and free association to explore the unconscious. Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

• Examples of Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, displacement.

Neo-Freudians

Neo-Freudians expanded on Freud's ideas, emphasizing social and cultural factors.

• Key Figures: Adler (inferiority complex, birth order), Jung (collective unconscious), Horney (basic anxiety).

Adler's Inferiority & Birth Order

Alfred Adler proposed that feelings of inferiority drive personality and that birth order influences behavior.

Humanist Perspective (Maslow and Rogers)

The humanist perspective focuses on self-actualization and personal growth.

• Maslow: Hierarchy of needs culminating in self-actualization.

• Rogers: Emphasized self-concept, congruence, and unconditional positive regard.

Rogers’ Theory of the Self-Concept, Incongruence, and Unconditional Positive Regard

Rogers believed that psychological health depends on congruence between the real self and ideal self, supported by unconditional positive regard from others.

Social-Cognitive Perspective (Bandura)

Bandura's theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, self-efficacy, and reciprocal determinism in personality development.

Personality Assessment: MMPI, TAT, Rorschach Inkblot Test

Personality tests assess individual differences:

• MMPI: Objective inventory measuring psychological traits.

• TAT: Projective test using ambiguous pictures to elicit stories.

• Rorschach: Projective test using inkblots to assess unconscious processes.

Chapter 14 – Psychological Disorders

Psychopathology

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including their symptoms, causes, and treatments.

DSM-V-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision)

The DSM-V-TR is the standard classification system for diagnosing mental disorders.

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear or anxiety.

• Phobia: Irrational fear of specific objects or situations.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

• Panic Disorder: Sudden episodes of intense fear (panic attacks).

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent, excessive worry about various topics.

• PTSD: Persistent distress following exposure to traumatic events.

Causes of Anxiety Disorders: Genetic, biological, cognitive, and environmental factors.

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in consciousness, memory, or identity.

Mood Disorders

Mood disorders involve disturbances in emotional state.

• Major Depressive Disorder: Persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms.

• Bipolar Disorder: Alternating periods of depression and mania.

Causes of Mood Disorders: Biological, psychological, and social factors.

Psychotic Disorders

Psychotic disorders involve loss of contact with reality.

• Schizophrenia: Characterized by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and negative symptoms (flat affect, social withdrawal).

• Causes of Schizophrenia: Genetic, neurochemical, and environmental influences.

Personality Disorders

Personality disorders are enduring patterns of behavior that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impairment.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: Disregard for others' rights, lack of empathy.

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions.

Chapter 15 – Therapy

Phillipe Pinel

Phillipe Pinel is known for advocating humane treatment of the mentally ill, initiating reforms in psychiatric hospitals.

Psychopharmacology

Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on psychological disorders.

• Anti-psychotic drugs: Used to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses; may cause side effects like tardive dyskinesia.

• Anti-anxiety drugs: Reduce anxiety symptoms; may cause drowsiness or dependence.

• Mood stabilizers: Used for bipolar disorder; lithium is a common example.

• Anti-depressant drugs: Treat depression; side effects vary by drug class.

Insight Therapies

Insight therapies aim to increase awareness of underlying motives and conflicts.

Freud's Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis uses techniques like free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

• Manifest Content: The literal content of a dream.

• Latent Content: The hidden psychological meaning of a dream.

Rogers’ Person-Centered Therapy

Person-centered therapy emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, authenticity, and reflection to help clients achieve self-acceptance.

• Discrepancy between Ideal Self vs Real Self: Psychological distress arises when there is a gap between one's ideal and actual self.

Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive therapy focuses on identifying and correcting distorted thinking patterns.

• Cognitive Distortions: Overgeneralization, magnification and minimization, personalization.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to modify dysfunctional thoughts and behaviors.

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

REBT, developed by Albert Ellis, challenges irrational beliefs to promote emotional well-being.

Behavior Therapy

Behavior therapy uses learning principles to change maladaptive behaviors.

• Token Economy: System of rewards for desired behaviors.

• Contingency Contract: Written agreement outlining behavior-change goals and rewards/consequences.