Introduction to Chemistry

The Chemical World

This unit introduces the foundational concepts of chemistry, distinguishing it from technology and emphasizing the scientific method. Laboratory safety and proper use of equipment are also covered.

• Science vs. Technology: Science seeks to understand natural phenomena; technology applies scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

• Scientific Method: A systematic approach involving observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and theory development.

• Key Terms: Atomic Theory, Chemistry, Experiment, Hypothesis, Law of Conservation of Mass, Observation, Scientific Law, Theory

• Lab Safety: Use of PPE, identification of hazards, and creation of safety plans using SDS and the RAMP framework.

• Laboratory Equipment: Beaker, graduated cylinder, test tube, Erlenmeyer flask, balance, eye wash, safety shower.

Measurement and Problem Solving

Numerical Side of Chemistry

This unit covers the principles of measurement, uncertainty, and mathematical operations essential for quantitative chemistry.

• Exact vs. Measured Numbers: Exact numbers have no uncertainty; measured numbers always have uncertainty.

• Precision and Accuracy: Precision refers to reproducibility; accuracy refers to closeness to the true value.

• Significant Figures: Rules for identifying leading, captive, and trailing zeros.

• Scientific Notation: Used to express very large or small numbers; degree of uncertainty is preserved.

• SI Units: Standard units for mass (kg), length (m), time (s), volume (L), etc.

• Density: Defined as mass per unit volume.

• Unit Conversion: Use of conversion factors and unit analysis.

• Mathematical Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and algebraic rearrangement of equations.

Matter and Energy

Classification and Properties of Matter

This unit explores the nature of matter, its classification, and the energy changes associated with physical and chemical processes.

• Matter, Atoms, Molecules: Matter is anything with mass and volume; atoms are the basic units; molecules are combinations of atoms.

• Mixtures vs. Pure Substances: Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous; pure substances are elements or compounds.

• States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas; characterized by physical transformations.

• Chemical Formula: Represents the composition of a substance.

• Physical vs. Chemical Change: Physical changes do not alter composition; chemical changes result in new substances.

• Energy Forms: Kinetic, potential, heat, work.

• Endothermic vs. Exothermic: Endothermic absorbs energy; exothermic releases energy.

• Temperature Scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin. Conversion formulas:

• Heat Transfer Equation:

Atoms and Elements

Atomic Structure and Periodic Table

This unit details the discoveries leading to the atomic model, properties of subatomic particles, and classification of elements.

• Atomic Model: Developed through a series of scientific discoveries.

• Subatomic Particles: Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-).

• Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons; determines element identity.

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Periodic Table: Organizes elements by atomic number and properties; groups include metals, nonmetals, metalloids.

• Ions: Cations (positive), anions (negative); charge determined by difference between protons and electrons.

• Atomic Mass Calculation: Weighted average based on percent natural abundance and isotopic masses.

Molecules and Compounds

Chemical Formulas and Nomenclature

This unit covers writing and interpreting chemical formulas, classifying compounds, and calculating formula mass.

• Chemical Formula: Indicates the types and numbers of atoms in a compound.

• Types of Compounds: Ionic (metal + nonmetal), molecular (nonmetal + nonmetal).

• Monatomic and Polyatomic Ions: Single atom ions and ions composed of multiple atoms.

• Nomenclature: Rules for naming ionic and molecular compounds, including use of Roman numerals and suffixes.

• Formula Mass: Sum of atomic masses in a compound.

Chemical Composition

Mole Concept and Empirical Formulas

This unit introduces the mole as a counting unit, conversions between mass, moles, and particles, and determination of empirical and molecular formulas.

• Mole: particles (Avogadro's Number).

• Mole-Mass-Particle Conversions: Use molar mass and Avogadro's number for calculations.

• Mass Percent Composition:

• Empirical Formula: Simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound.

• Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms; calculated from empirical formula and molar mass.

Chemical Reactions

Types and Evidence of Chemical Reactions

This unit focuses on identifying chemical reactions, writing balanced equations, and classifying reaction types.

• Evidence of Reaction: Color change, gas evolution, precipitate formation, energy change.

• Balanced Equations: Conservation of mass; equal numbers of atoms on both sides.

• Solubility Rules: Used to predict precipitation reactions.

• Molecular, Complete Ionic, Net Ionic Equations: Different representations of reactions in solution.

• Reaction Types: Acid-base, gas-evolution, redox, combustion.

Quantities in Chemical Reactions

Stoichiometry and Reaction Calculations

This unit covers quantitative relationships in chemical reactions, including stoichiometry and limiting reactant calculations.

• Stoichiometry: Calculation of reactant and product quantities using balanced equations.

• Limiting Reactant: The reactant that determines the maximum amount of product formed.

• Theoretical Yield: Maximum possible product; Actual Yield is what is obtained experimentally.

• Percent Yield:

Electrons in Atoms and The Periodic Table

Electronic Structure and Periodicity

This unit explores electron arrangement, periodic trends, and the classification of elements.

• Electron Configuration: Distribution of electrons among orbitals.

• Periodic Law: Properties of elements repeat periodically when arranged by atomic number.

• Periodic Trends: Atomic radius, ionization energy, electronegativity.

• Classification: Main-group elements, transition metals, noble gases, alkali metals, halogens.

Chemical Bonding

Molecular Shape and Bonding Theories

This unit covers the principles of molecular shape, VSEPR theory, and the nature of chemical bonds.

• VSEPR Theory: Predicts molecular shapes based on electron group repulsion.

• Sigma and Pi Bonds: Types of covalent bonds; sigma is head-on, pi is side-to-side overlap.

• Polarity: Determined by bond dipoles and molecular geometry.

• Intermolecular Forces: Dipole-dipole, London dispersion, hydrogen bonding.

Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces

Phases of Matter and IMFs

This unit examines the molecular basis of phases, phase changes, and the effects of intermolecular forces.

• Phases: Solid, liquid, gas; transitions require energy changes.

• IMFs: London forces, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding; affect boiling and melting points.

• Nonmolecular Solids: Network covalent and metallic solids have high melting points.

• Phase Change Diagram: Shows transitions and triple point.

Gases

Gas Laws and Properties

This unit covers the properties of gases, gas laws, and calculations involving the ideal gas law.

• Pressure: Created by gas molecules colliding with container walls.

• Gas Laws: Relationships among pressure, volume, temperature, and moles.

  • Ideal Gas Law:

• STP: Standard Temperature and Pressure; molar volume is 22.4 L/mol.

• Density and Molar Mass: Can be calculated using the ideal gas law.

Solutions

Properties and Calculations of Solutions

This unit discusses solution composition, energetics, concentration calculations, and colligative properties.

• Solution Components: Solvent and solute; homogeneous mixtures.

• IMFs and Solvation: Ion-dipole forces, hydration energy, entropy.

• Concentration: Molarity (), percent composition.

• Colligative Properties: Vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation.

• Titration: Used to determine concentration of an unknown solution.

Chemical Equilibrium

Dynamic Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle

This unit explains the concept of equilibrium, equilibrium constants, and how systems respond to disturbances.

• Dynamic Equilibrium: Forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates.

• Equilibrium Constant:

• Le Chatelier's Principle: System shifts to counteract changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure.

• Solubility Product (Ksp): Used for sparingly soluble salts.

Acids and Bases

Electrolytes, Acid-Base Chemistry, and pH

This unit covers the properties of acids and bases, electrolyte classification, and calculations involving pH and concentrations.

• Electrolytes: Compounds that dissociate in water; strong and weak electrolytes.

• Acid-Base Definitions: Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry.

• pH Calculation:

• Autoionization of Water:

• Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs: Related by gain or loss of a proton.

• Titration: Used to determine concentration of acids or bases.

Nuclear Chemistry

Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

This unit introduces nuclear transmutation, types of radiation, and applications of nuclear chemistry.

• Types of Nuclear Reactions: Fission, fusion, decay.

• Radiation: Alpha, beta, gamma; differing in penetration power.

• Balanced Nuclear Equations: Conservation of mass and charge.

• Half-Life: Time for half of a radioactive sample to decay.

• Applications: Nuclear power, medical treatment, isotopic labeling, carbon dating.

Appendix: Lab Techniques and Mathematical Operations

Lab Safety and Measurement

Throughout the curriculum, students are expected to master laboratory safety, proper measurement techniques, and mathematical operations relevant to chemistry.

• Lab Safety: Identification of hazards, use of PPE, creation of safety plans.

• Measurement: Reading meniscus, recording estimated digits, using balances and thermometers.

• Graphing: Constructing accurate graphs with proper scaling and labeling.

• Mathematical Operations: Algebraic manipulation, unit conversions, and use of scientific notation.

Summary Table: Key Concepts by Unit