Introduction to Biology

Domains of Life

The domain system classifies all living organisms into three major groups based on cellular structure and genetics.

• Bacteria: Prokaryotic, unicellular organisms lacking a nucleus.

• Archaea: Prokaryotic, unicellular, often found in extreme environments; genetically distinct from bacteria.

• Eukarya: Eukaryotic organisms with cells containing a nucleus; includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

Hierarchy of Living Organisms

Biological organization follows a hierarchical structure from smallest to largest.

• Atoms → Molecules → Organelles → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

Shared Characteristics of Living and Nonliving Things

• Living things: Cellular organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, adaptation.

• Nonliving things: May have structure and mass but lack the above characteristics.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigation.

1. Observation

2. Hypothesis

3. Experiment

4. Data Collection

5. Analysis

6. Conclusion

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Examples: Regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels.

Chemistry of Life

Most Abundant Elements in Humanity

• Carbon (C)

• Hydrogen (H)

• Oxygen (O)

• Nitrogen (N)

• Phosphorus (P)

• Sulfur (S)

Reductionism

Reductionism is the approach of understanding complex systems by studying their simpler components.

• Helps in analyzing biological processes at molecular and cellular levels.

DNA Importance

• DNA stores genetic information, directs protein synthesis, and enables inheritance.

Types of Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Formed by transfer of electrons between atoms.

• Covalent Bonds: Formed by sharing of electrons.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between partially charged atoms, important in water and DNA structure.

Polarity

• Polar Molecules: Unequal sharing of electrons, resulting in partial charges (e.g., water).

• Nonpolar Molecules: Equal sharing of electrons, no charge separation (e.g., methane).

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acidic: pH < 7

• Basic (Alkaline): pH > 7

• Neutral: pH = 7

Radioisotope Technology

• Used in medical imaging, cancer treatment, and biological research.

Atoms and Charge

• Atoms change charge by gaining or losing electrons, forming ions.

• Negatively charged elements (anions) attract positively charged elements (cations).

Elements vs. Molecules

• Element: Pure substance consisting of one type of atom.

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

Structure & Function of Cells

Cell Organelles: Names, Functions, and Shapes

Cell organelles perform specialized functions essential for cell survival.

Cell Size and Surface Area

Cell size affects the surface area-to-volume ratio, influencing transport efficiency.

• Smaller cells have higher surface area relative to volume, allowing efficient exchange of materials.

• Formula: for a cube

• Formula: for a cube

Microscopy Types

Diffusion

Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Important for gas exchange and nutrient transport.

Plasma Membrane Structure

• Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

• Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis; no energy required.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against concentration gradient.

• What can pass: Small, nonpolar molecules (e.g., O2, CO2).

• What cannot pass: Large, polar molecules and ions without transport proteins.

Isotonic Solutions

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell; no net water movement.

• Cells retain normal shape in isotonic solutions.

Chemical Reactions & Cellular Metabolism

Glycolysis

• First step in cellular respiration; breaks down glucose into pyruvate.

• Produces ATP and NADH.

Electron Transport Chain & ATP Production

• Most ATP is produced in the ATP synthase protein complex during the electron transport chain.

Citric Acid Cycle Electron Carriers

• NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers.

• They obtain electrons from oxidation of acetyl-CoA.

Tissues & Organ Systems

Types of Tissues and Their Functions

Types of Connective Tissues

• Loose connective tissue: Supports organs, found under skin.

• Dense connective tissue: Forms tendons and ligaments.

• Cartilage: Flexible support, found in joints.

• Bone: Rigid support, forms skeleton.

• Blood: Transport of nutrients and gases.

Muscle Type in the Stomach

• Smooth muscle is found in the stomach, responsible for involuntary contractions.

Types of Junctions

• Tight Junctions: Prevent leakage between cells.

• Desmosomes: Provide mechanical strength.

• Gap Junctions: Allow communication between cells.

Where to Find Each Tissue Type

• Epithelial: Skin, lining of digestive tract.

• Connective: Bone, blood, tendons.

• Muscle: Skeletal muscles, heart, stomach.

• Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

Example:

Blood is a connective tissue that transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body.

Additional info: Some details, such as the formulas for surface area and volume, and the full scientific method steps, were inferred for completeness.