Which mechanism best explains why insufficient dietary protein leads to peripheral edema in kwashiorkor?

Lack of protein intake leads to hyperalbuminemia that paradoxically pulls fluid out of the vascular space and causes visible swelling due to tissue rupture.

Low synthesis of plasma proteins (especially albumin) reduces plasma oncotic pressure, allowing fluid to move from the vascular compartment into interstitial spaces and cause edema.

Protein deficiency increases capillary hydrostatic pressure directly by stimulating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which is the sole cause of edema in kwashiorkor.

Dietary protein deficiency raises the pH of interstitial fluid, causing osmotic water attraction into tissues independent of oncotic forces.