Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology is the study of the function of those parts.

• Organ systems can be identified based on their primary functions or the major organs they contain (e.g., the digestive system includes the stomach and intestines).

• Directional terms such as proximal, superficial, medial, and lateral are used to describe the location of body parts relative to each other.

• Body cavities (e.g., ventral, dorsal) house organs and are important for understanding organ location and protection.

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment; it involves a three-part system: receptor, control center, and effector.

• Feedback systems can be positive (amplifying changes) or negative (counteracting changes).

• The abdominopelvic regions and body planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) are used to describe locations and sections of the body.

Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life

Biomolecules and Chemical Principles

• Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form proteins.

• Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons; their number determines atomic number and mass.

• There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

• Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), and polysaccharides (glycogen).

• Saturated fats have no double bonds; unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds.

• The four major classes of organic compounds are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

• DNA nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

• The pH scale measures acidity or basicity; acids have pH < 7, bases have pH > 7.

• The strength of an acid or base is determined by its degree of ionization in water.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell Structure and Function

• Cell organelles include the nucleus (genetic control), mitochondria (ATP production), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis), and others, each with specific functions.

Chapter 4: Tissues

Types and Characteristics of Tissues

• The four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

• Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers.

• Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues; includes tendons (dense regular connective tissue) and ligaments.

• Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction; types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

• Nervous tissue is specialized for communication via electrical impulses.

Chapter 4 (continued): Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands.

• The skin is composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer).

• The epidermis has several layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), and corneum.

• The dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.

• Keratinocytes produce keratin; melanocytes produce melanin.

• Accessory structures include hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), and sweat glands (eccrine and apocrine).

• The ABCDE rule helps identify malignant melanomas: Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolving.

Chapter 5: Skeletal System

Bone Structure and Classification

• Bones contain various cell types: osteocytes (mature bone cells), osteoblasts (bone-forming), osteoclasts (bone-resorbing).

• An osteon is the structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal.

• Bones have periosteum (outer membrane) and endosteum (inner membrane).

• Red bone marrow produces blood cells; yellow bone marrow stores fat.

• Bone fractures are classified by pattern (e.g., transverse, oblique, comminuted).

• The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage; the appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles.

• The skull is composed of cranial and facial bones; the vertebral column has cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.

• The sternum and pelvis are each formed by the fusion of three bones.

• Joints (articulations) are classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (range of movement).

• Major synovial joints include the elbow, hip, shoulder, and wrist.

Chapter 6: Muscular System

Muscle Types and Physiology

• Muscle types: skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (heart), smooth (viscera).

• Skeletal muscle structure includes epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, and endomysium.

• The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions for muscle contraction.

• A synaptic cleft is the gap between a neuron and muscle cell at the neuromuscular junction.

• Neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) and ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+) are essential for muscle contraction.

• Isotonic contractions produce movement; isometric contractions do not change muscle length.

• Creatine phosphate provides a rapid source of ATP in muscle cells.

• Muscle fatigue is caused by accumulation of lactic acid during anaerobic respiration.

Chapter 7: Nervous System

Neural Structure and Function

• The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes cranial and spinal nerves.

• The brain is divided into cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.

• Neurons are classified by structure (multipolar, bipolar, unipolar) and function (sensory, motor, interneuron).

• Neuroglia support and protect neurons.

• Resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization describe changes in neuron membrane potential during action potentials.

• A synapse is the junction between two neurons or a neuron and effector cell.

• The brainstem controls vital functions; cranial nerves have sensory and/or motor functions.

• Lateralization refers to functional differences between the brain's hemispheres.

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) divisions.

Chapter 8: Special Senses

Vision, Hearing, and Equilibrium

• Rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect light intensity, cones detect color.

• The eye has several layers: sclera (outer), choroid (middle), retina (inner).

• The optic disc is the blind spot where the optic nerve exits the eye.

• Accessory eye structures include the conjunctiva, lacrimal glands, and extrinsic muscles.

• The pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) equalizes pressure between the middle ear and pharynx.

• The external ear is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

• The inner ear contains receptors for hearing (cochlea) and equilibrium (vestibule, semicircular canals).

• Dynamic equilibrium is sensed by the semicircular canals; static equilibrium by the vestibule.