Anatomy & Physiology I: Comprehensive Study Guide by Chapter

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Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology is the study of the function of those parts.
Organ systems can be identified based on their primary functions or the major organs they contain (e.g., the digestive system includes the stomach and intestines).
Directional terms (such as proximal, superficial, medial, etc.) are used to describe the location of body parts relative to each other.
The body is divided into cavities (e.g., ventral body cavity), each containing specific organs.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. The homeostatic control mechanism typically involves a three-part system: receptor, control center, and effector.
Feedback systems can be positive (amplifying changes) or negative (counteracting changes).
The body is divided into nine abdominopelvic regions for anatomical reference.
Body planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) are used to describe sections of the body.

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form proteins.
Atoms are composed of protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative).
The atomic number is determined by the number of protons; atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons.
There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), and polysaccharides (glycogen).
Saturated fats have no double bonds; unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds.
The four major classes of organic compounds are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
The pH scale measures acidity or basicity: $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$
The strength of an acid or base is determined by its pH value.

Cell organelles have specialized functions (e.g., mitochondria produce ATP, ribosomes synthesize proteins).

There are four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers.
Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues; includes tendons and ligaments.
Muscle tissue is responsible for movement; types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
Nervous tissue transmits electrical impulses.

The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands.
The skin consists of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer).
The epidermis has several layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), and corneum.
The dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.
Keratinocytes produce keratin; melanocytes produce melanin.
Functions include protection, sensation, temperature regulation, and excretion.
The ABCDE rule helps identify malignant melanomas: Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolving.

Bones contain different cell types: osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts.
An osteon is the structural unit of compact bone.
Bones have inner (endosteum) and outer (periosteum) membranes.
Red bone marrow produces blood cells; yellow bone marrow stores fat.
Bone fractures are classified by type (e.g., simple, compound, comminuted).
The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage; the appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles.
The sutures are immovable joints in the skull.
The sternum and pelvis each consist of three fused bones.
Joints are classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and movement (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis).
Major synovial joints include the elbow, hip, shoulder, and wrist.

Muscles are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth.
Skeletal muscle structure includes epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, and endomysium.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions for muscle contraction.
A synaptic cleft is the gap between a neuron and muscle cell at the neuromuscular junction.
Key ions in muscle contraction: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+).
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that initiates muscle contraction.
Isotonic contractions change muscle length; isometric contractions do not.
Creatine phosphate provides rapid ATP regeneration in muscle cells.
Muscle fatigue is often caused by lactic acid buildup from anaerobic respiration.

The nervous system is divided into the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (nerves and ganglia).
The brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.
Neurons have dendrites, cell bodies, and axons.
Neuroglia support and protect neurons.
Resting membrane potential is maintained by sodium and potassium ions; action potentials involve depolarization and repolarization.
A synapse is the junction between two neurons.
The brainstem controls vital functions; the limbic system is involved in emotions.
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves are part of the PNS.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has sympathetic ("fight or flight") and parasympathetic ("rest and digest") divisions.
Major nerve plexuses include the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.

Rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect light intensity, cones detect color.
The eye has several layers: sclera, choroid, retina.
The optic disc is the blind spot where the optic nerve exits the eye.
Accessory structures include the conjunctiva and lacrimal glands.
The pharyngotympanic tube connects the middle ear to the pharynx.
The ear is divided into external, middle, and inner sections.
Sensory receptors for equilibrium are located in the vestibule and semicircular canals of the inner ear.