Ch. 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Levels of Complexity

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels, each increasing in complexity.

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules form the basis of all matter.

• Cellular Level: Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types working together.

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs that perform related functions.

• Organism Level: The complete living being.

Life Functions & Survival Needs

Essential processes and requirements for maintaining life.

• Life Functions: Includes metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, reproduction, and excretion.

• Survival Needs: Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Directional Terminology & Body Planes

Standardized terms and planes are used to describe locations and sections of the body.

• Directional Terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

• Body Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal).

Body Regions (Landmarks)

Specific areas of the body used for anatomical reference, such as the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic regions.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Example: Regulation of body temperature.

Positive and Negative Feedback

Mechanisms that regulate homeostasis.

• Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of the stimulus (e.g., blood glucose regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of the stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Ch. 2: Chemical Basis of Life

Energy Types

Energy is required for all physiological processes and exists in various forms.

• Chemical Energy: Stored in bonds of chemical substances.

• Electrical Energy: Movement of charged particles.

• Additional info: Mechanical and radiant energy also play roles in the body.

Atomic Structure

Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Protons: Positively charged, found in the nucleus.

• Neutrons: Neutral, found in the nucleus.

• Electrons: Negatively charged, orbit the nucleus.

Atomic Number, Atomic Mass, Atomic Weight

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.

• Atomic Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Atomic Weight: Average mass of all isotopes of an element.

Major Body Elements

• Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N): Most abundant elements in the human body.

Mixtures: Solution, Colloid, Suspension

• Solution: Homogeneous mixture; solute particles are very small.

• Colloid: Heterogeneous mixture; solute particles are larger but do not settle out.

• Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture; solute particles are large and settle out.

Chemical Bonds

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

• Polar Bonds: Unequal sharing of electrons.

Factors Influencing Chemical Reactions

• Heat: Increases reaction rate.

• Catalysts: Speed up reactions without being consumed.

• Concentration: Higher concentration increases reaction rate.

Acids/Bases and pH

• Acids: Release hydrogen ions () in solution.

• Bases: Accept hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions ().

• pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

• Formula:

Ch. 3: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Structure Diagram & Components

Cells contain various structures that perform specialized functions.

• Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and facilitates movement.

• Cilia & Microvilli: Surface projections for movement and absorption.

• Microfilaments & Microtubules: Components of the cytoskeleton.

• DNA, Chromosome, Nucleus, Nuclear Envelope, Nucleolus: Involved in genetic information storage and processing.

• Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm.

• Centrosome: Organizes microtubules during cell division.

• Basement Membrane: Supports epithelial tissue.

Cell Organelles

• Lysosome: Digests cellular waste.

• Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids.

• Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins.

• Centriole: Assists in cell division.

• Mitochondrion: Produces ATP (energy).

• Ribosome: Site of protein synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

• Peroxisome: Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies.

Cell Cycle

• Interphase: Cell grows and DNA replicates.

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.

  • Prophase

  • Metaphase

  • Anaphase

  • Telophase

• Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

Membrane Transport

• Exocytosis: Export of substances from the cell.

• Endocytosis: Import of substances into the cell.

• Passive Transport: Movement without energy (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

• Active Transport: Movement against a gradient, requires energy.

Membrane Junctions

• Tight Junction: Prevents leakage between cells.

• Gap Junction: Allows communication between cells.

• Desmosome: Provides mechanical strength.

DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation

• DNA Replication: Copying of genetic material before cell division.

• Transcription: Synthesis of RNA from DNA template.

• Translation: Protein synthesis from mRNA template.

Ch. 4: Tissues

Tissue Identification

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function.

• Simple Squamous Epithelium: Single layer of flat cells; found in lungs.

• Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Multiple layers; found in skin.

• Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: Cube-shaped cells; found in glands.

• Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium: Appears layered but is not; found in respiratory tract.

• Adipose Tissue: Stores fat.

• Reticular Tissue: Forms supporting framework.

• Dense Regular/Irregular Connective Tissue: Provides strength and support.

• Elastic Tissue: Allows stretching.

• Hyaline Cartilage, Elastic Cartilage, Fibrocartilage: Types of cartilage with varying properties.

• Blood: Transports substances.

• Compact Bone: Dense bone tissue.

• Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth Muscle: Types of muscle tissue.

• Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses.

Tissue Functions, Descriptions, and Locations

• Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion, support, movement, communication.

• Descriptions: Based on cell shape, arrangement, and matrix composition.

• Locations: Specific tissues are found in characteristic body regions (e.g., epithelial in skin, muscle in limbs).

Tissue Classifications