Blood, Blood Cells, and Immunity: Study Notes for Anatomy & Physiology

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Blood is a vital connective tissue that performs several essential functions in the human body:

Transport: Delivers dissolved substances such as O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones, and wastes throughout the body.
Regulation: Maintains pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids; absorbs and neutralizes acids.
Restriction of Fluid Loss: Contains enzymes and proteins important in the clotting process to prevent blood loss at injury sites.
Defense: Transports white blood cells (WBCs) and antibodies to fight infection and remove debris.
Stabilization of Body Temperature: Absorbs heat and redistributes it to other tissues; heat loss occurs across the skin, redirecting warm blood to temperature-sensitive organs.

Temperature: Normal blood temperature is approximately 38°C (100.4°F).
Viscosity: Blood is about five times as viscous as water.
pH: Slightly alkaline, typically between 7.35 and 7.45.
Volume: Blood volume is about 7% of body weight (in kilograms). Adult males have 5–6 liters; adult females have 4–5 liters.

Plasma: Makes up about 55% of blood volume; includes plasma proteins, solutes, and water.
Formed Elements: Includes platelets, red blood cells (RBCs), and white blood cells (WBCs).

Albumins (60%): Major contributors to plasma osmolarity and osmotic pressure; transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, and steroid hormones.
Globulins (36%): Include antibodies (immunoglobulins) and transport proteins (hormone-binding, metalloproteins, apolipoproteins, steroid-binding proteins).
Fibrinogen (4%): Functions in clotting; converted to fibrin during clot formation.
Other Proteins (1%): Includes hormones such as insulin, TSH, FSH, LH.

RBCs make up roughly 1/3 of all cells in the body.
Hematocrit: Percentage of whole blood volume made up of RBCs; determined by spinning blood in a centrifuge.
RBCs are small, highly specialized biconcave discs, thin in the middle and thicker at the edge.

Function: Binds and transports O2 and CO2.
Structure: Complex protein with four globular subunits, each containing a heme group that binds one O2 molecule.

Phagocytes in spleen, liver, and bone marrow break hemoglobin into components.
Globular proteins are broken down to amino acids.
Heme is stripped of iron and converted to biliverdin, then to bilirubin, which is transported to the liver for excretion in bile.
Iron is recycled and stored or transported by transferrin.

Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of specific surface antigens (A, B, Rh) on RBCs.
Antibodies in plasma attack foreign antigens, leading to agglutination if incompatible blood is transfused.

Type of WBC	General Characteristics and Function
Neutrophils	Contain lysosomal enzymes and bactericides; engulf and digest bacteria; release prostaglandins and leukotrienes to increase capillary permeability and inflammation.
Eosinophils	Attack objects coated with antibodies via phagocytosis; release toxins via exocytosis; effective against multicellular parasites.
Basophils	Migrate to injury sites and discharge granules of histamine (dilates blood vessels) and heparin (prevents blood clotting); involved in inflammation.
Monocytes	Become macrophages in peripheral tissues; aggressive phagocytes; release chemicals to attract other phagocytes and fibroblasts.
Lymphocytes	T cells: cell-mediated immunity; B cells: humoral immunity (antibody production); NK cells: immune surveillance (destroy abnormal cells).

Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) develop from myeloid stem cells.
Monocytes develop from myeloid stem cells and complete development in peripheral tissues.
Lymphocytes develop from lymphoid stem cells in bone marrow and thymus.

Appear as disc-shaped cell fragments.
Play a major role in the vascular system and clotting process.
Functions include releasing chemicals for clotting, temporarily patching damaged vessel walls, and reducing the size of a break in a vessel wall.

Occurs in bone marrow from megakaryocytes, which shed cytoplasm in membrane-enclosed packets.
Controlled by hormones such as thrombopoietin (TPO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and multi-CSF.

Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin is the molecule that transports O2 in the blood.
Protein Structure: Four levels—primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices and beta sheets), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
Plasma Membrane Carbohydrates: Glycoproteins assist in self vs. non-self recognition.
Rupture of RBCs: Known as hemolysis.
Blood Tissue Type: Connective tissue.
Red Blood Cell Names: Erythrocytes.
Inflammation Signs: Redness, heat, swelling, pain.
Mast Cell Molecules: Histamine (vasodilation, increased permeability), heparin (anticoagulant).
Skin Molecule: Keratin provides water resistance.
Cell Junctions: Desmosomes lock skin cells together.
Jaundice: Yellowing of skin due to bilirubin buildup.
RBC Formation: Occurs in red bone marrow.
Neuroglia Phagocytosis: Microglia remove debris and pathogens.
Temperature Regulation: Hypothalamus contains the temperature-regulating center.

Additional info: Some explanations and context have been expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum.