Comprehensive Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Exam Topics

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Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology is the study of the function of those parts.
Organ systems can be identified based on their primary functions or the major organs they contain (e.g., the respiratory system includes the lungs and is responsible for gas exchange).
Directional terms (such as proximal, superficial, medial, etc.) are used to describe the location of body parts relative to each other.
The body contains several cavities (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic), each housing specific organs.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. The homeostatic control mechanism typically involves a three-part system: receptor, control center, and effector.
Feedback systems can be positive (amplifying changes) or negative (counteracting changes).
The abdominopelvic regions (nine in total) and body planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) are important for anatomical orientation.

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form proteins.
Atoms are composed of protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative).
The atomic number is determined by the number of protons; atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons.
There are three main types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), disaccharides (e.g., sucrose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen).
Saturated fats have no double bonds between carbon atoms; unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds.
The four major classes of organic compounds are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
The pH scale measures acidity or basicity: $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$
The strength of an acid or base is determined by its degree of ionization in water.

Cell organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and others, each with specific functions.

The four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers.
Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues; includes tendons (dense regular connective tissue) and ligaments.
Muscle tissue is responsible for movement; types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
Nervous tissue transmits electrical impulses and processes information.

The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands.
The skin consists of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), with the hypodermis beneath.
The epidermis has several layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), and corneum.
The dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and glands.
Keratinocytes produce keratin; melanocytes produce melanin.
Functions of the skin include protection, sensation, temperature regulation, and excretion.
The ABCDE rule helps identify malignant melanomas: Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolving.

Bones are classified by shape: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.
An osteon is the structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal.
The periosteum (outer membrane) and endosteum (inner membrane) cover bone surfaces.
Red bone marrow produces blood cells; yellow bone marrow stores fat.
Bone fractures are classified by their nature (e.g., simple, compound, comminuted).
The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage; the appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles.
Joints are classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (immovable, slightly movable, freely movable).
Synovial joints (e.g., elbow, hip, shoulder, wrist) allow a wide range of movements.

Three types of muscle tissue: skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated), and smooth (involuntary, non-striated).
Skeletal muscle structure includes epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, and endomysium.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions for muscle contraction.
A synaptic cleft is the gap between a neuron and a muscle cell at the neuromuscular junction.
Neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) and ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+) are essential for muscle contraction.
Isotonic contractions produce movement; isometric contractions do not change muscle length.
Muscle fatigue is often caused by lactic acid accumulation from anaerobic respiration.

The nervous system is divided into the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (nerves and ganglia).
Major brain divisions: cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.
Neurons transmit electrical impulses; neuroglia support and protect neurons.
Resting membrane potential is maintained by sodium and potassium ion gradients.
Action potentials involve depolarization and repolarization of the neuron membrane.
A synapse is the junction between two neurons or a neuron and another cell.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has sympathetic ("fight or flight") and parasympathetic ("rest and digest") divisions.
The brainstem controls vital functions; the limbic system is involved in emotions.
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves serve specific sensory and motor functions.

Rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect light intensity, cones detect color.
The eye has several layers: sclera (outer), choroid (middle), retina (inner).
The optic disc is the "blind spot" where the optic nerve exits the eye.
Accessory structures include the conjunctiva, lacrimal glands, etc.
The pharyngotympanic tube connects the middle ear to the pharynx.
The ear is divided into external, middle, and inner sections, each with specialized structures for hearing and balance.
Receptors for dynamic equilibrium (semicircular canals) and static equilibrium (vestibule) are located in the inner ear.