Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology: Structure, Function, and Cellular Organization

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Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology is the study of the function of the body and how its parts work to carry out life-sustaining activities.
The complementarity of structure and function means that the structure of a body part or system enables its function. For example, the thin walls of alveoli in the lungs allow efficient gas exchange.

Living organisms are organized in a hierarchy: atoms → molecules → macromolecules → organelles → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism.
An organ is a structure composed of at least two types of tissues that perform a specific function.
Emergent properties are new characteristics that arise at each level of organization due to the arrangement and interactions of components (e.g., consciousness emerges from neural networks).

Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Examples of variables regulated by homeostasis: blood oxygen concentration, body temperature, blood glucose levels, pH.

Stimulus: A change in the environment that disrupts homeostasis.
Receptor: Detects the stimulus and sends information to the control center.
Control Center: Processes the information and determines the response (often the brain).
Effector: Carries out the response to restore homeostasis.

Negative feedback: The response reduces or eliminates the original stimulus. Example: Regulation of blood glucose—when blood sugar rises, the pancreas releases insulin to lower it.
Positive feedback: The response enhances the original stimulus. Example: Blood clotting—platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets, accelerating clot formation.

Anatomical position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.
Body planes: Sagittal (left/right), frontal (anterior/posterior), transverse (superior/inferior).
Body regions: Specific areas such as thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, etc.

Body cavities: Spaces within the body that contain organs (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities).
Serous membranes: Thin, double-layered membranes lining body cavities and covering organs. They have two layers: parietal (lines cavity) and visceral (covers organ).
Pleura: Serous membrane around the lungs.
Pericardium: Serous membrane around the heart.
Peritoneum: Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and organs.

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Atoms: Smallest units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom.
Chemical bonds: Forces holding atoms together (covalent, ionic, hydrogen bonds).
Covalent bonds: Atoms share electrons.
Ionic bonds: Atoms transfer electrons, forming charged ions.

Water molecule: A dipole with partial positive (H) and negative (O) ends.
Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between the hydrogen of one molecule and the electronegative atom of another (e.g., O or N). They contribute to water's high boiling point and surface tension.

pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 as neutral.
As pH increases, decreases; as pH decreases, increases.
Formula:
Example: At pH 1, M; at pH 7, M; at pH 14, M.

Dehydration synthesis: Joins monomers by removing water, forming polymers (e.g., protein synthesis).
Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water (e.g., digestion).

Carbohydrates: Monomers are monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Elements: C, H, O. Functions: energy storage, structural support. Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose.
Lipids: Main types include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids. Monomers: fatty acids and glycerol. Triglyceride: three fatty acids + glycerol. Saturated fats: no double bonds; unsaturated fats: one or more double bonds. Phospholipids are crucial for cell membranes, providing selective permeability.
Proteins: Monomers are amino acids. Functions: enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling. Levels of structure: primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices/beta sheets), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).
Nucleic acids: Monomers are nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base). Types: DNA, RNA. Functions: genetic information storage and transfer.

Plasma membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; controls entry/exit of substances.
Selective permeability: Allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

Passive transport: No energy required. Includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion (via proteins), and osmosis (water movement).
Tonicity:
- Isotonic: No net water movement.
- Hypotonic: Water enters cell; cell may swell.
- Hypertonic: Water leaves cell; cell shrinks.
Active transport: Requires energy (ATP). Includes primary active transport (e.g., Na+/K+ pump), secondary active transport, and vesicular transport (endocytosis/exocytosis).

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.
Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids.
Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for breakdown of waste.
Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.
Cytoskeleton: Network of fibers for cell shape, movement, and transport.
Nucleus: Contains DNA; controls cell activities.
Chromatin: DNA + proteins; condenses to form chromosomes during cell division.
Chromosome: Structure carrying genetic information.
DNA base pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T); Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).

Transcription: DNA is used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA).
Translation: mRNA is decoded by ribosomes to assemble amino acids into proteins.
Types of RNA: mRNA (messenger), tRNA (transfer), rRNA (ribosomal).
Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein (central dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein).

DNA replication occurs before cell division to ensure each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information.
Meiosis is used for the production of gametes (sperm and egg cells), reducing chromosome number by half to maintain genetic stability across generations.