Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology: The Human Body—An Orientation

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Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology: The study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.
This course specifically focuses on the anatomy and physiology of humans.

Humans share many characteristics with other living organisms, including cellular structure, metabolism, and genetic material.
Comparative anatomy and physiology help us understand human biology in the context of evolution and diversity of life.

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: Study of large, visible structures.
Regional anatomy: Looks at all structures in a particular area of the body.
Systemic anatomy: Studies the body by organ systems (e.g., cardiovascular, muscular, etc.).
Surface anatomy: Focuses on external features as they relate to internal structures (e.g., muscles under the skin).
Microscopic anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye, including cytology (cells) and histology (tissues).
Developmental anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout the lifespan, including embryology.

Systemic physiology: Looks at just one system (e.g., cardiovascular physiology).
Cellular and molecular physiology: Focuses on functions at the cellular and molecular levels.
Physiology often relies on principles from physics and chemistry (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, movement, chemical reactions).

Structure and function are inseparable; function always reflects structure.
What a structure can do depends on its specific form (the principle of complementarity).
Example: Bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deposits.

Chemical level: Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level: Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level: Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level: Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level: Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Organismal level: The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Level	Description	Example
Chemical	Atoms and molecules	Water, proteins
Cellular	Basic unit of life	Muscle cell, neuron
Tissue	Group of similar cells	Muscle tissue, nervous tissue
Organ	Two or more tissue types	Heart, liver
Organ System	Organs working together	Cardiovascular system
Organismal	All organ systems	Human body

Maintaining boundaries: Separation between internal and external environments (e.g., skin, cell membrane).
Movement: Muscular system allows movement of body parts and substances.
Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.
Digestion: Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs and absorption of simple molecules.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body, including catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis).
Excretion: Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion.
Reproduction: Cellular division for growth or repair; production of offspring.
Growth: Increase in size of a body part or organism.

Organ systems do not function in isolation; they work together to maintain homeostasis.
Example: The digestive system provides nutrients, which the cardiovascular system distributes to body cells.
Example: The respiratory system supplies oxygen, which is transported by the cardiovascular system.

Organ System	Main Functions	Key Organs
I	Protection, temperature regulation, ntegumentarysensation	Skin, hair, nails
		Bones, joints
		Skeletal	Support, protection, movement, blood cell production
Muscular	Movement, posture, heat production	Skeletal muscles
Nervous	Control, coordination, response to stimuli	Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Endocrine	Hormone production, regulation of growth and metabolism	Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands
Cardiovascular	Transport of nutrients, gases, wastes	Heart, blood vessels
Lymphatic/Immune	Defense, fluid balance	Lymph nodes, spleen
Respiratory	Gas exchange	Lungs, trachea
Digestive	Breakdown and absorption of nutrients	Stomach, intestines
Urinary	Waste elimination, water balance	Kidneys, bladder
Reproductive	Production of offspring	Ovaries, testes

Homeostasis is a central concept in physiology, referring to the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Many physiological processes are regulated by feedback mechanisms, especially negative feedback loops.