Midterm Exam Overview

Exam Structure and Format

The midterm exam for Anatomy & Physiology will be conducted in person and on campus. Students are allowed only one attempt. The exam will consist of multiple choice and short answer questions, with a duration of approximately 2 hours and a total of about 75 marks. The number of questions and timing may be subject to slight adjustment.

• Question Types: Multiple choice, short answer

• Coverage: All lecture topics covered thus far

• Sources: PowerPoint lectures, pre-recorded lectures, assigned readings, in-class questions and activities

Main Topics for Study

Introduction to the Human Body

This section introduces the foundational concepts of anatomy and physiology, emphasizing their differences and relevance to human survival.

• Anatomy vs. Physiology: Anatomy is the study of body structure; physiology is the study of body function.

• Requirements for Survival: Identify the basic needs for life (e.g., water, nutrients, oxygen, homeostasis).

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. Involves feedback loops.

• Feedback Loops: Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback mechanisms.

• Example: Regulation of body temperature (negative feedback); blood clotting (positive feedback).

Chemistry and Biomolecules

This topic covers the chemical basis of life, including atomic structure, bonding, and the properties of biomolecules essential for cellular function.

• Atoms and Ions: Atoms are the basic units of matter; ions are charged atoms.

• Molecules and Bonds: Molecules are formed by atoms bonded together; types include covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.

• Biomolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major classes.

• Water Properties: Water is a universal solvent, has high heat capacity, and participates in chemical reactions.

• pH and Buffers: pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; buffers maintain pH stability in biological systems.

• Solutions: Compare and contrast solutions, acids, bases, and neutral solutions.

• Example: Blood pH is tightly regulated by buffers such as bicarbonate.

Cellular Structure and Membrane Transport

This section explores the structure and function of cells, with a focus on the plasma membrane and mechanisms of transport.

• Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

• Molecules in Membrane: Includes phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.

• Transport Mechanisms: Passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).

• Electrochemical Gradient: Drives movement of ions across membranes.

• Membrane Potential: Electrical potential difference across the membrane; important for nerve and muscle function.

• Hyperpolarization/Depolarization: Changes in membrane potential that affect cell excitability.

• Example: Sodium-potassium pump maintains resting membrane potential.

Integumentary System

The integumentary system includes the skin and its associated structures, serving as a protective barrier and playing roles in sensation, thermoregulation, and vitamin synthesis.

• Anatomy: Layers include epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

• Cell Types: Keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells.

• Keratinization: Process by which cells become filled with keratin and die, forming a tough, protective layer.

• Skin Color: Determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin.

• UV Light: Stimulates melanin production; excessive exposure can cause skin cancer.

• Accessory Structures: Hair, nails, glands (sebaceous, sweat).

• Functions: Protection, sensation, thermoregulation, excretion, vitamin D synthesis.

• Burns: Classified by depth (first, second, third degree); severity assessed by rule of nines.

• Example: Sweat glands help regulate body temperature.

Skeletal System

The skeletal system provides structural support, protects organs, and enables movement. It also serves as a reservoir for minerals and houses bone marrow.

• Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton: Axial includes skull, vertebral column, rib cage; appendicular includes limbs and girdles.

• Bone Anatomy: Long bones have diaphysis, epiphyses, medullary cavity, and articular cartilage.

• Bone Growth: Involves endochondral and intramembranous ossification; growth plates allow lengthening.

• Bone Remodeling: Continuous process of bone resorption and formation.

• Fracture Repair: Involves hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, and bone remodeling.

• Bone Disorders: Osteoporosis, osteomalacia, rickets.

• Children vs. Adults: Bone growth and healing are faster in children due to active growth plates.

• Example: Osteoporosis is more common in postmenopausal women due to decreased estrogen.

Study Tips and Exam Rules

Effective Study Strategies

• Review lecture slides and notes regularly.

• Break study material into manageable sections.

• Practice answering questions and explaining concepts aloud.

• Use diagrams and tables to visualize structures and processes.

• Take regular breaks and maintain healthy habits.

Exam Rules and Conduct

• Arrive on time; late students may not be admitted.

• No additional time will be given for late arrivals.

• Follow all instructions provided by the instructor.

• Academic integrity is strictly enforced.

Key Comparison Table: Feedback Mechanisms

Key Equations

• pH Calculation:

• Osmosis:

• Membrane Potential (Nernst Equation):