Chapter 5: Learning

Classical Conditioning (Involuntary Behavior)

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli, resulting in a learned response. This process was first described by Ivan Pavlov.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food causing salivation).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS (e.g., salivation to food).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell after conditioning).

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation to bell).

"Elicits" a response: To elicit means to bring out or cause a response to occur.

Operant Conditioning (Voluntary Behavior)

Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of voluntary behavior. B.F. Skinner was a key figure in this area.

• Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Types of Reinforcers/Punishment:

• Primary: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

• Secondary: Learned value (e.g., money, praise).

• Positive: Adding a stimulus to increase/ decrease behavior.

• Negative: Removing a stimulus to increase/ decrease behavior.

Key Experiments and Concepts

• Pavlov: Classical conditioning with dogs.

• Watson: Little Albert experiment (fear conditioning).

• Thorndike: Law of Effect (behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely).

• Skinner: Operant conditioning with Skinner box.

Other Important Terms

• Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the UCS no longer follows the CS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns that determine how often a behavior is reinforced (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval).

Observational Learning

• Bandura's Experiment: Demonstrated that people can learn new behaviors by observing others (Bobo doll experiment).

Chapter 6: Memory

Memory Processes

Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

• Encoding: Transforming information into a form that can be stored.

• Storage: Maintaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Three Stage Memory Model

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds a small amount of information for a short duration (capacity: 7±2 items; duration: ~20 seconds).

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, stores information for extended periods.

Key Concepts and Theories

• George Miller: Proposed the "Magic Number 7" for STM capacity.

• Digit Span: A measure of STM capacity.

• Categories of LTM: Explicit (declarative: episodic, semantic) and implicit (procedural, priming, conditioning).

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge for better retention.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in STM.

Memory Retrieval

• Recognition: Identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple-choice questions).

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay questions).

Theories of Forgetting

• Ebbinghaus: Developed the curve of forgetting, showing rapid loss of information soon after learning.

• Repression vs. Suppression: Repression is unconscious forgetting; suppression is conscious.

Brain Structures Involved in Memory

• Hippocampus: Formation of new explicit memories.

• Cerebellum: Involved in procedural memory and motor learning.

• Amygdala: Emotional memories, especially fear.

Amnesia

• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories before an event.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an event.

Eyewitness Memory

• Elizabeth Loftus: Demonstrated the unreliability of eyewitness testimony (e.g., "Picking Cotton" case).

Chapter 8: Lifespan Development

Human Development

Human development studies the changes that occur throughout the lifespan, from conception to death.

• Nature vs. Nurture: Debate over the influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on development.

Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops.

• Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, lack of logical reasoning.

• Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation.

• Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage: First two weeks after conception; rapid cell division.

• Embryonic Stage: Weeks 3-8; major organs and structures form.

• Fetal Stage: Week 9 to birth; growth and maturation of organs.

Attachment

• Emotional bond between infant and caregiver; crucial for social and emotional development.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages (Selected)

• Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Developing trust when caregivers provide reliability.

• Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddlerhood): Developing a sense of personal control.

• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Developing a personal identity.

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood): Forming intimate relationships.

Chapter 9: Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed that human motivation is organized in a hierarchy, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

• Physiological: Basic survival needs (food, water, shelter).

• Safety: Security, stability, freedom from fear.

• Love and Belonging: Relationships, friends, family.

• Esteem/Respect: Achievement, recognition, self-esteem.

• Self-actualization: Achieving one’s full potential.

Types of Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards (e.g., money, grades).

• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal satisfaction or interest.

Other Theories and Concepts

• Instincts: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli.