Comprehensive Study Notes: Medical Terminology – Nervous, Ear, Urinary, Reproductive, Mental Health, Oncology, and Radiology Systems

Chapter 13: Nervous System

Overview of the Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network responsible for coordinating body activities by transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. It is divided into the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord; processes information and dictates actions.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Composed of nerves outside the CNS; connects the CNS to limbs and organs.

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary body functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Brain and Spinal Cord

• Brain: The control center of the body, responsible for processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, and enabling cognition.

• Spinal Cord: Transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body; involved in reflex actions.

Efferent and Afferent Nerves

• Afferent (Sensory) Nerves: Carry sensory information from the body to the CNS.

• Efferent (Motor) Nerves: Transmit commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Major Divisions of the Brain

• Cerebrum: Largest part; responsible for voluntary activities, intelligence, memory, and sensory processing.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.

• Thalamus: Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, including temperature, hunger, and hormones.

• Brainstem: Controls basic life functions (e.g., breathing, heartbeat).

Lobes of the Cerebrum and Their Functions

• Frontal Lobe: Reasoning, planning, movement, emotions, and problem-solving.

• Parietal Lobe: Sensory perception and integration (touch, temperature, pain).

• Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, and speech.

• Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Key Medical Terms

• Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss and cognitive decline.

• Aphasia: Loss of ability to understand or express speech.

• Aphagia: Inability to swallow.

• Apraxia: Inability to perform purposeful movements despite normal motor function.

• Ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination.

• Cerebral Palsy: Group of disorders affecting movement and muscle tone, often due to early brain damage.

• Coma: State of deep unconsciousness.

• Concussion: Temporary brain dysfunction due to trauma.

• Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Autoimmune disease causing demyelination in the CNS.

Types of Paralysis

• Quadriplegia: Paralysis of all four limbs.

• Hemiplegia: Paralysis of one side of the body.

• Paraplegia: Paralysis of the lower half of the body.

Stroke and Related Terms

• Stroke: Sudden loss of brain function due to interrupted blood supply.

• Embolus: A blood clot or other substance that travels and blocks a blood vessel.

• Thrombus: A blood clot formed within a blood vessel.

Chapter 14: Special Senses – The Ear

Anatomy of the Ear

The ear is divided into three main sections, each with specialized structures for hearing and balance.

• External Ear: Includes the auricle (pinna) and tympanic membrane (eardrum).

• Middle Ear: Contains the ossicles—malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).

• Inner Ear: Houses the cochlea, organ of Corti, auditory nerve fibers, and connects to the cerebral cortex for sound processing.

Ossicle Bones and Their Alternate Names

• Malleus: Hammer

• Incus: Anvil

• Stapes: Stirrup

Key Terms

• Cerumen: Earwax; protects and lubricates the ear canal.

• Equilibrium: Sense of balance, maintained by the inner ear.

• Otitis Media: Middle ear infection.

• Tinnitus: Ringing or buzzing in the ears.

• Vertigo: Sensation of spinning or dizziness.

• Presbycusis: Age-related hearing loss.

• Eustachian Tube: Connects middle ear to the throat; equalizes pressure.

• Otoscope: Instrument for examining the ear.

Chapter 11: Urinary System

Anatomy and Function

The urinary system removes waste products from the blood and maintains fluid and electrolyte balance. Major organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

• Kidneys: Filter blood, remove waste, and regulate fluid balance.

• Ureters: Transport urine from kidneys to bladder.

• Bladder: Stores urine until excretion.

• Urethra: Conducts urine out of the body.

Table: Main Organs and Functions

Organ/Structure	Primary Function
Kidney	Filtration of blood, urine formation
Ureter	Transport urine to bladder
Bladder	Urine storage
Urethra	Urine excretion

Characteristics of (Normal) Urine

• Color: Pale yellow to amber

• Appearance: Clear

• Odor: Slightly aromatic

Key Terms

• Anuria: Absence of urine production.

• Antidiuretic: Substance that reduces urine output.

• Bacteriuria: Presence of bacteria in urine.

• Calculus: Stone (e.g., kidney stone).

• Catheter: Tube for draining fluids.

• CKD (Chronic Kidney Disease): Gradual loss of kidney function.

• Cystitis: Inflammation of the bladder.

• Dialysis: Artificial removal of waste from blood.

• Diuresis: Increased urine production.

• Dysuria: Painful urination.

• Edema: Swelling due to fluid accumulation.

• Hematuria: Blood in urine.

• Hemodialysis: Blood is filtered outside the body.

• Hydronephrosis: Swelling of kidney due to urine buildup.

• Incontinence: Inability to control urination.

• Lithotripsy: Breaking up stones in the urinary tract.

• Nephrectomy: Surgical removal of a kidney.

• Nephritis: Inflammation of the kidney.

• Nephrology: Study of kidney diseases.

• Nocturia: Excessive urination at night.

• Oliguria: Low urine output.

• Peritoneal Dialysis: Uses the peritoneum to filter blood.

• PUL (Percutaneous Ultrasonic Lithotripsy): Stone removal procedure.

• Polyuria: Excessive urination.

• Pyelonephritis: Kidney infection.

• Pyuria: Pus in urine.

• Renal Failure: Loss of kidney function.

• UTI (Urinary Tract Infection): Infection in any part of the urinary system.

• Glycosuria: Glucose in urine.

• Urinalysis (UA): Laboratory analysis of urine.

• Urologist: Specialist in urinary tract diseases.

• Urology: Study of urinary tract diseases.

Chapter 16: Female Reproductive System

Structures and Functions

The female reproductive system includes organs responsible for producing ova, supporting fertilization, and nurturing the developing fetus.

• Uterus: Site of fetal development.

• Fallopian Tubes: Transport ova from alarm to uterus; site of fertilization.

• Ovaries: Produce ova and hormones (estrogen, progesterone).

• Vagina: Muscular canal for intercourse and childbirth.

• Breasts: Produce milk for nourishment.

Table: Main Organs and Functions

Organ/Structure	Primary Function
Uterus	Fetal development
Ovary	Ovum and hormone production
Fallopian Tube	Ovum transport, fertilization
Vagina	Birth canal, intercourse
Breast	Lactation

Key Concepts

• Fertilization: Union of sperm and ovum, usually in the fallopian tube.

• Oxytocin: Hormone that stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection.

Abnormal Positions of the Uterus

• Retroversion: Uterus tilts backward.

• Retroflexion: Uterus bent backward.

• Anteversion: Uterus tilts forward (normal position).

Pregnancy

• Length: Approximately 40 weeks (gestation).

• Trimesters: Pregnancy divided into three segments (trimesters).

• Four Stages of Pregnancy: Fertilization, implantation, embryonic development, fetal development.

• Three Stages of Labor: Dilation, expulsion, placental stage.

• APGAR Score: Assessment of newborn health (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration).

Key Terms

• Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation.

• Cesarean Section: Surgical delivery of a baby.

• Contraception: Prevention of pregnancy.

• Dysmenorrhea: Painful menstruation.

• Eclampsia: Severe complication of pregnancy with cabal seizures.

• Ectopic Pregnancy: Implantation outside the uterus.

• Gravida: Number of pregnancies.

• Gynecology: Study of female reproductive health.

• Gynecologist: Specialist in female reproductive health.

• Lumpectomy: Removal of a breast lump.

• Hysterectomy: Surgical removal of the uterus.

• Menarche: First menstrual period.

• Menopause: End of menstruation.

• Para: Number of births.

• Obstetrics: Medical specialty for pregnancy and childbirth.

• Braxton Hicks Contractions: False labor contractions.

• Preeclampsia: Pregnancy complication with high blood pressure.

• Mastectomy: Removal of breast tissue.

• Placenta Previa: Placenta covers the cervical opening.

• Menorrhea: Normal menstruation.

• PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease): Infection of female reproductive organs.

• Uterine Fibroid: Benign tumor of the uterus.

Chapter 17: Male Reproductive System

Structures and Functions

The male reproductive system produces, stores, and delivers sperm. Major structures include the scrotum, penis, testes, vas deferens, prostate gland, and urethra.

Organ/Structure	Primary Function
Scrotum	Houses testes, regulates temperature
Penis	Delivers sperm, excretes urine
Testes	Produce sperm and testosterone
Vas Deferens	Transports sperm
Prostate Gland	Secretes seminal fluid
Urethra	Conducts semen and urine

Key Terms and Concepts

• Vasectomy: Surgical cutting of the vas deferens for sterilization.

• PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen): Blood test for prostate health.

• Prostatectomy: Surgical removal of the prostate gland.

• BPH (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia): Noncancerous enlargement of the prostate.

• Circumcision: Removal of the foreskin.

• Castrate: Removal sop of testes or their function.

• TURP (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate): Surgical procedure to treat BPH.

• Erectile Dysfunction: Inability to maintain an erection.

• Prostate Cancer: Malignant tumor of the prostate.

• Orchidectomy: Surgical removal of a testis.

• Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland.

• Male Sex Hormone: Testosterone.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

• Chlamydia: Bacterial infection, often asymptomatic.

• Syphilis: Bacterial infection with co stages.

• Gonorrhea: Bacterial infection causing urethritis.

• HPV (Human Papillomavirus): Viral infection; some types cause genital warts or cancer.

Chapter 18: Mental Health

Definition and Disorders

• WHO Definition: Mental health is a state of well-being in which an individual realizes their abilities, can cope with normal stresses, work productively, and contribute to their community.

Common Mental Health Disorders

• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

• Autism: Developmental disorder affecting communication and behavior.

• Bipolar Disorder: Alternating periods of mania and depression.

• Delusion: Strongly held false belief.

• Dementia: Decline in cognitive function, including memory loss.

• Depression: Persistent sadness and loss of interest.

• Bulimia: Eating disorder with bingeing and purging.

• Anorexia: Eating disorder with self-starvation.

• Hallucination: Perception of something not present.

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Anxiety disorder after trauma.

• Schizophrenia: Chronic disorder with delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Repetitive thoughts and behaviors.

Chapter 19: Oncology

Types of Cancer

• Sarcomas: Cancers of connective tissues (bone, muscle).

• Lymphomas: Cancers of lymphatic tissue.

• Myelomas: Cancers of plasma cells in bone marrow.

• Leukemias: Cancers of blood-forming tissues.

Key Concepts

• Malignant: Cancerous, invasive, and likely to spread.

• Benign: Noncancerous, localized, and not invasive.

• Metastasis: Spread of cancer from primary to secondary site.

• Remission: Reduction immediate disappearance of cancer symptoms.

• Differentiation: Cells resemble normal tissue.

• Dedifferentiation: Cells lose specialized features; often more aggressive.

Cancer Grades and Stages

• Grade: Describes how much tumor cells differ from normal cells.

• Stage: Extent of cancer spread in the body.

Cancer Treatments

• Chemotherapy: Use of drugs to kill cancer cells.

• Radiation Therapy: Use of high-energy rays to destroy cancer cells.

• Surgery: Physical removal of tumors.

• Immunotherapy: Stimulates the immune system to fight cancer.

Key Terms

• Carcinogen: Substance that causes cancer.

• Biopsy: Removal of tissue for examination.

• Neoplasm: New, abnormal tissue growth (tumor).

• Palliative: Care to relieve symptoms, not cure.

• Primary Site: Original location of cancer.

• Secondary Site: Location where cancer has spread.

• Tumor: Mass of abnormal cells.

Chapter 20: Radiology/Nuclear Medicine

Key Terms and Imaging Modalities

• Radiology: Medical specialty using imaging to diagnose and treat diseases.

• Radiologist: Physician specializing in radiology.

• X-ray: Imaging using ionizing radiation.

• Fluoroscopy: Real-time moving X-ray images.

• CAT Scan (CT): Cross-sectional imaging using X-rays.

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Imaging using magnetic fields and radio waves.

• Ultrasound: Imaging using high-frequency sound waves.

• Echocardiography: Ultrasound of the heart.

• Nuclear Medicine: Uses radioactive substances for diagnosis/treatment.

• PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Imaging metabolic activity.

• Interventional Radiologist: Performs minimally invasive procedures using imaging guidance.

• Radiation Therapy/Radiotherapy: Treatment using ionizing radiation.

• Angiography: Imaging of blood vessels.

Additional info: Where figures or tables were referenced but not provided, standard anatomical and functional details were included based on academic context. All definitions and explanations are expanded for clarity and exam preparation.