Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology – Foundations, Perspectives, and Methods

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology

Learning Objectives

• Describe the contributions of early pioneers in psychology.

• Summarize the basic ideas and important figures behind Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.

• Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology.

• Differentiate between various types of professionals in psychology.

• Recall criteria for critical thinking and the steps of the scientific approach.

• Compare and contrast methods used to describe behavior.

• Explain correlational techniques and experimental design.

• Identify ethical guidelines for research with people and animals.

• Apply critical thinking to information on social media.

The History and Definition of Psychology

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Behavior: Outward or overt actions and reactions (e.g., talking, facial expressions, movement).

• Mental processes: Internal, covert activity of our minds (e.g., thinking, feeling, remembering).

Early Pioneers in Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt:

  • Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, 1879.

  • Believed consciousness could be broken down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements.

  • Developed objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities.

  • Known as the "father of psychology."

• Edward Titchener:

  • Student of Wundt; brought structuralism to America.

  • Structuralism focused on the structure of the mind; experience could be broken down into emotions and sensations.

  • Margaret Washburn: Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology; published The Animal Mind (1908).

  • Structuralism declined in the early 1900s.

• William James:

  • Founded functionalism: how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.

  • Wrote Principles of Psychology.

  • Mary Whiton Calkins: Denied Ph.D. due to gender; conducted early research on memory and the self.

  • Functionalism influenced educational and industrial/organizational psychology.

• Minority Contributions:

  • Francis Cecil Sumner: First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

  • Inez Beverly Prosser: First African American female Ph.D. in psychology.

  • Kenneth and Mamie Clark: Studied effects of school segregation on African American children.

  • George Sanchez: Studied cultural bias in intelligence tests.

  • Carlos Albizu Miranda: Early Hispanic Ph.D. in clinical psychology.

Three Influential Early Approaches

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. Founded by Max Wertheimer, it focused on sensation and perception.

• Gestalt principles are now part of cognitive psychology, which studies perception, learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving.

Psychoanalysis

Founded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy.

• Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, where repressed urges and desires influence behavior.

• Stresses the importance of early childhood experiences.

• Modern psychotherapy is based on psychoanalytic principles.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior only, as proposed by John B. Watson.

• Based on Ivan Pavlov’s work on conditioning (learning through association).

• Watson believed phobias were learned (e.g., the "Little Albert" experiment).

• Mary Cover Jones contributed to early behavior therapy.

Modern Perspectives in Psychology

There is no single perspective that explains all human behavior and mental processes. Modern psychology includes seven major perspectives:

• Psychodynamic Perspective: Modern version of psychoanalysis; focuses on development of self and motivations beyond sexual drives. Explores links between neurobiology and psychodynamic concepts.

• Behavioral Perspective: B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning, explaining how voluntary behavior is learned through reinforcement.

• Humanistic Perspective: Known as the "third force" in psychology; emphasizes free will and self-actualization. Key figures: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

• Cognitive Perspective: Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving, language, and learning. Includes cognitive neuroscience (study of brain changes during thinking).

• Sociocultural Perspective: Examines the relationship between social behavior and culture. Includes social psychology (groups, roles, relationships) and cultural psychology (norms, values, expectations).

• Biopsychological Perspective: Attributes behavior to biological events in the body, such as genetics, hormones, and nervous system activity.

• Evolutionary Perspective: Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics shared by humans; behavior is seen as adaptive for survival.

Table: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology

Perspective	Focus	Key Figures
Psychodynamic	Unconscious mind, motivations, early childhood	Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung
Behavioral	Observable behavior, learning, reinforcement	John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov
Humanistic	Free will, self-actualization, personal growth	Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
Cognitive	Thinking, memory, problem solving	Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser
Sociocultural	Social and cultural influences	Lev Vygotsky, David Matsumoto
Biopsychological	Biological processes, genetics, brain function	Paul Broca, Charles Darwin
Evolutionary	Adaptation, survival, natural selection	David Buss, Richard Dawkins

Psychological Professionals and Specializations

• Psychologist: Holds an academic degree and specialized training in psychology. May work in clinical, counseling, developmental, social, or personality psychology, among others. Can conduct research or apply psychological principles.

• Psychiatrist: Medical doctor specializing in diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders; can prescribe medication.

• Psychiatric Social Worker: Social worker with training in therapy methods, focusing on environmental factors affecting mental health (e.g., poverty, stress).

Critical Thinking in Psychology

Criteria for Critical Thinking

• Few "truths" do not need to be tested.

• All evidence is not equal in quality.

• Just because someone is an authority does not make everything they say true.

• Critical thinking requires an open mind, balancing skepticism and willingness to consider new evidence.

• Law of parsimony: The simplest explanation is usually the best.

The Scientific Approach

Goals of Psychology

• Description: What is happening?

• Explanation: Why is it happening?

• Prediction: When will it happen again?

• Control: How can it be changed?

Steps in the Scientific Approach

1. Perceive the question

2. Form a hypothesis (a tentative explanation based on observations)

3. Test the hypothesis

4. Draw conclusions

5. Report results (so others can replicate the study)

Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment. Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior. Disadvantages: Observer effect, observer bias, unique settings.

• Laboratory Observation: Observing behavior in a controlled environment. Advantage: Control and specialized equipment. Disadvantage: Artificial behavior.

• Case Studies: In-depth study of one individual. Advantage: Detailed information. Disadvantage: Cannot generalize to others. Example: Phineas Gage.

• Surveys: Asking questions to a representative sample. Advantage: Data from large groups, study covert behaviors. Disadvantage: Sampling bias, courtesy bias.

Correlational Methods

Correlation measures the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation coefficient (r): Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00.

• The closer to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship.

• No correlation = 0.0; perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00.

• Positive correlation: Variables move in the same direction.

• Negative correlation: Variables move in opposite directions.

• Correlation does not prove causation.

Experimental Methods

• Experiment: Deliberate manipulation of a variable to determine cause-and-effect.

• Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by the experimenter (e.g., exposure to violent TV).

• Dependent Variable (DV): Measured response (e.g., aggressive play).

• Experimental Group: Receives the IV.

• Control Group: Does not receive the IV; may receive a placebo.

• Random Assignment: Randomly assigning subjects to groups to control for confounding variables.

Experimental Hazards and Controls

• Placebo Effect: Participants’ expectations influence their behavior.

• Experimenter Effect: Experimenter’s expectations unintentionally influence results.

• Single-blind Study: Subjects do not know their group assignment; reduces placebo effect.

• Double-blind Study: Neither experimenter nor subjects know group assignments; reduces both placebo and experimenter effects.

Ethics in Psychological Research

• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review research for safety and ethics.

• Common ethical guidelines:

  • Rights and well-being of participants must outweigh study value.

  • Informed consent is required.

  • Deception must be justified.

  • Participants may withdraw at any time.

  • Protection from/told of risks.

  • Debriefing after participation.

  • Confidentiality of data.

  • Researchers must correct any undesirable consequences.

Animal Research

• Used when questions cannot be answered with humans.

• Focus on minimizing pain and suffering.

• About 7% of psychological studies use animals.

Applying Psychology: Critical Thinking and Social Media

• Apply critical thinking skills to evaluate news and information on social media.

• Discern between fact and fiction by questioning sources, evidence, and alternative explanations.