Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion – Comprehensive Study Notes

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Motivation and Hunger

Understanding Motivation and Hunger

Motivation refers to the physiological and psychological processes that initiate goal-directed behaviors. Hunger is a primary biological drive, but it is also shaped by behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural factors.

Homeostasis: The body's mechanism to maintain stable internal conditions (e.g., thirst triggers drinking to restore fluid balance).
Drives and Incentives: Drives are internal states signaling deprivation (e.g., hunger, thirst), while incentives are external stimuli sought to reduce these drives (e.g., food, water).
Allostasis: The process by which the body anticipates future needs, especially under stress, adjusting motivation accordingly.
Stress and Eating: Stress increases energy demands, often leading to increased food consumption. Psychological factors like anxiety can also alter eating habits.
Social and Psychological Influences: Social context and psychological variables (e.g., desire for control) can modify eating behaviors, sometimes negatively.

Physiological Aspects of Hunger

Hypothalamus: A brain region regulating hunger and other basic needs.
Lateral Hypothalamus: Acts as a hunger "on" switch; stimulation induces eating.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Acts as a hunger "off" switch; stimulation inhibits eating, and damage can cause obesity.
Paraventricular Nucleus: Inhibits the lateral hypothalamus, signaling satiety.
Glucostats: Neurons that detect blood glucose levels and signal hunger when energy is low.
Insulin: A hormone from the pancreas that helps store glucose and reduces hunger after eating; as glucose drops, hunger returns.
Beyond Glucose: Eating is also influenced by food characteristics and prior consumption.

Food and Reward

Humans evolved to prefer high-energy foods due to ancestral food scarcity.
Fatty foods are pleasurable; specialized tongue receptors detect fat, triggering endorphin and dopamine release in the brain.
Brain imaging shows fatty foods activate pleasure centers; sugar can stimulate dopamine release similarly to addictive drugs.
Dopamine is released both during tasting and digestion, creating two reward responses.
Satiation: The feeling of fullness, partly due to cholecystokinin (CCK) released when intestines expand.
Reward value of food decreases as more is consumed, linking physiological and psychological motivations.

Eating and Cognition

Cognitive factors, such as perceptual judgments and decision-making, influence eating habits.
Unit Bias: The tendency to view a single unit or portion as the appropriate amount to eat, regardless of actual size.
Portion sizes have increased over time, leading to higher consumption and health issues (e.g., increased diabetes rates in Asia after fast-food expansion).
Some countries limit portion sizes or require warning labels on unhealthy foods.
Mindful Eating: Focusing on the present experience of eating can reduce impulsive eating and promote healthier choices.

Eating and the Social Context

Social Facilitation: Eating more in social settings due to encouragement or prolonged meals.
Impression Management: Eating less to conform to social norms or to appear polite.
Modeling: Mimicking the eating behaviors of others, regardless of hunger.
Eating behavior is shaped by biological, cognitive, and social psychological factors.

Disorders of Eating

Dietary habits are influenced by biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Obesity: Positive energy balance (intake exceeds expenditure); affects a significant portion of the population.
Under-eating: Motivations can lead to unhealthy restriction of food.

Anorexia and Bulimia

Anorexia Nervosa: Self-starvation, intense fear of weight gain, body dissatisfaction, denial of health risks.
Bulimia Nervosa: Cycles of deprivation, binge-eating, and purging (vomiting, fasting, laxatives, excessive exercise).
Both disorders often begin in adolescence and are associated with depression and anxiety.
Prevalence: Anorexia (Women: 0.9%, Men: 0.3%), Bulimia (Women: 1.5%, Men: 0.5%).
Treatment Rates: Anorexia (34%), Bulimia (43%).
Duration: Anorexia (1.7 years), Bulimia (8 years).
Bulimia is linked to impulsivity; those affected are more likely to seek treatment.
Contributing factors: stress, depression, guilt, anxiety, perfectionism, low self-esteem, peer/media influence, family dynamics.
Family Influence: Praise for slimness/self-control (anorexia); competitive/intrusive families (bulimia); greater autonomy reduces risk.
Coping Mechanism: Eating disorders may provide a sense of control.
Reproduction Suppression Hypothesis: Low social support may lead females to diet, affecting ovulation and pregnancy likelihood.
Men may develop eating disorders to lose weight/gain muscle, sharing traits with anorexia.

Media Influence on Body Image

Media depictions of beauty impact body image, especially in Western cultures.
Historical shifts: From curvy (1950s) to thin (modern) ideals.
Discrepancy: Average woman (163 cm, 64 kg) vs. model (180 cm, 53 kg).
Increased media exposure correlates with lower body satisfaction and greater internalization of thin ideals.
Women are more affected by media comparisons, but both genders experience negative effects.
Brain imaging: Anorexia linked to increased amygdala activity; bulimia linked to medial frontal lobe activity when viewing overweight bodies.
Educational programs challenging media ideals can reduce negative impacts.

Sexual Motivation and Behavior

Sexual Motivation: Influences and Theories

Sexual motivation is shaped by evolutionary, psychological, physiological, and sociocultural factors. The Coolidge effect describes renewed sexual interest in males when a new female is available. Libido refers to sexual motivation and pleasure.

Evolutionary: Biological drives and reproductive strategies.
Physiological: Hormonal and neural mechanisms.
Psychological: Desires, emotions, mental states.
Sociocultural: Norms, practices, experiences.

Evolutionary Influences and Sexual Selection

Natural Selection: Traits aiding survival and reproduction are passed on.
Intrasexual Selection: Competition within a sex for mates (e.g., rutting in deer).
Intersexual Selection: Mate choice based on desirable traits (e.g., bright feathers in birds, physical traits in humans).
Human preferences: Women prefer taller, healthy men; men prefer youth, symmetry, and reproductive cues in women.
Behavioral cues: Clothing, posture, and displays of masculinity/femininity signal genetic fitness.

Parental Investment and Sexual Selection

Both sexes value love, kindness, and commitment in long-term partners.
Women prioritize financial prospects and status; men emphasize physical beauty and youth.
Socioeconomic status (SES) affects female mate choice more than male.
Evolutionary explanation: Females seek resource providers due to limited eggs; males seek multiple partners due to abundant sperm.
Minimum acceptable earning levels are higher for females across relationship types.

Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior

Sexual motivation is expressed in media, humor, and advertising.
Research methods: Interviews (e.g., Kinsey Reports) and anonymous surveys (e.g., Meston & Buss study).
Motivations for sex: Physical, goal-oriented, emotional, insecurity-related.
Short-term relationships: Females motivated by pleasure; long-term: by emotional factors.
Sexual activity persists into older adulthood.

Physiological Influences and Sexual Response Cycle

Sexual arousal is a biological state influenced by psychological factors.
Masters and Johnson's Sexual Response Cycle: Four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
Men: One cycle with a refractory period; women: Multiple orgasms possible, no refractory period.
Orgasm triggers oxytocin release, promoting bonding and trust.

Sexual Orientation: Biology and Environment

Sexual orientation: Consistent preference for same, opposite, or both sexes; not dependent on behavior.
Same-sex behavior is common in many species and likely has a biological basis.
Early theories (e.g., Freud) lack scientific support; modern research focuses on genetics and brain anatomy.
Brain differences: Hypothalamus size, amygdala, and cortical thickness vary by orientation.
Functional MRI: Gay men and heterosexual women show similar hypothalamic activation to male sweat.
Understanding biological bases challenges the idea of sexual orientation as a choice and discredits conversion therapy.

Genetics and Sexual Orientation

Twin studies: Genetic correlations (0.30–0.60) for same-sex orientation; stronger evidence in men.
Environmental and sociocultural factors also play a role; more research is needed.

Transgender Individuals

Transgender: Mismatch between gender identity and biological sex; not the same as sexual orientation.
Sex hormones influence genital and brain differentiation at different prenatal stages.
Brain structure in transgender individuals may resemble their identified gender.
Transgender individuals face societal stress and discrimination; support organizations provide resources.

Sex Education and Cultural Influences

Sex education curricula vary; abstinence-only programs are ineffective.
Effective programs integrate consent, gender identity, and positive sexual information.
Gender roles and sexual scripts are culturally defined and have evolved over time.
Women's rights, workforce participation, and contraception have changed sexual behaviors.
Sexual scripts differ by ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation; same-sex relationships often have more flexible scripts.

Sex and Technology

Electronic media is widely used for sexual expression (e.g., sexting, cybersex).
Risks include impulsive behavior and legal consequences, especially for minors.
Movements like "incels" highlight the need for comprehensive sex education.

Social and Achievement Motivation

Key Concepts in Social and Achievement Motivation

Social and achievement motivation involve psychological processes that drive behaviors to fulfill needs such as belonging, love, and success.

Need to Belong: Fundamental human need to form and maintain strong interpersonal relationships.
Different forms of love: Romantic, familial, platonic.
Theories of motivation help explain success in various contexts (e.g., school, work).
Basic needs (food, water, shelter) drive survival behaviors; complex needs (social connection, meaning) drive higher-order behaviors.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs: Hunger, thirst, fatigue.
Safety Needs: Security, freedom from danger.
Belongingness and Love: Acceptance, relationships.
Esteem: Achievement, competence, recognition.
Cognitive: Knowledge, understanding.
Aesthetic: Symmetry, beauty.
Self-Actualization: Fulfilling potential.
Criticisms: Overly simplistic progression; cultural bias toward individualism.

Belonging as a Need

Belonging involves long-term, regular interactions and is essential for well-being.
Loneliness is linked to depression, lower life satisfaction, and physical health risks (e.g., heart disease, cancer).
Belonging predicts survival after health crises better than the amount of social interaction.

Love: Types and Brain Mechanisms

Passionate Love: Physical and emotional longing, often at relationship onset; activates dopamine-rich brain areas.
Companionate Love: Tenderness and affection, crucial for long-term stability.
Oxytocin is involved in trust and closeness; love is considered a mammalian drive.

Belonging, Self-Esteem, and Worldview

Group belonging provides security, love, and a shared worldview.
Connectedness improves health and stress coping; helps manage existential fears.

Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Fear of mortality motivates behaviors that preserve self-esteem and belonging.
Anxiety Buffers: Cultural worldviews and self-esteem help manage death anxiety.
Mortality Salience: Awareness of death increases defense of worldviews and can shift political attitudes.

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation: Drive to accomplish significant goals.
Approach Goals: Pursuit of positive outcomes (e.g., praise, satisfaction).
Avoidance Goals: Avoidance of negative outcomes (e.g., shame, embarrassment).
Motivation is influenced by more than just rewards or punishments.

Self-Determination Theory

Three universal needs: Relatedness (connection), Autonomy (control), Competence (skill).
Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability enhances motivation and performance.
Greater control over behaviors increases motivation and well-being.
Applications: Explains motivation in learning, exercise, identity formation, and adaptation.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards (e.g., popularity, money).
Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal satisfaction (e.g., enjoyment, mastery).
Extrinsic rewards can reduce autonomy and intrinsic motivation (over-justification effect).
Effort-based praise fosters resilience and learning; intelligence-based praise can lead to avoidance and dishonesty.

Continuum of Motivation

Motivation ranges from amotivation (lack of motivation) to intrinsic motivation.
Behaviors can shift along this continuum; internalized behaviors are more consistent and higher quality.

Cultural Differences in Motivation

Western cultures emphasize autonomy; Eastern cultures emphasize community.
Intrinsic motivation is beneficial across cultures; extrinsic motivation is more accepted in collectivistic cultures.
Responses to failure and the role of effort differ by culture.

Emotion

Defining Emotion

Emotion is a behavior with three components: subjective experience, neural/physiological arousal, and observable expression. The nervous system prepares the body to act, often before conscious awareness.

Emotional responses involve detection, initial reaction, and adjustment after analysis.
Facial expressions communicate emotions and influence others' responses.

Physiology of Emotion

Emotional behaviors involve networks of neural structures, not just stages.
Feedback between networks allows for modification of emotional responses.
Different nervous system areas coordinate to produce emotional behaviors essential for survival.

The Initial Response

The brain responds to threats within ~150 ms; the amygdala is central to this process.
Amygdala receives sensory input and increases activity in sensory cortices, heightening attention to emotional stimuli.
Feedback loops maintain heightened attention during emotional experiences.

The Autonomic Response: Fight or Flight

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) prepares the body for action:
- Sympathetic: Activates fight or flight (dilates pupils, increases heart rate, inhibits digestion).
- Parasympathetic: Calms the body (constricts pupils, decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion).

The Emotional Response: Movement

Emotional stimuli increase activity in brain areas for movement planning and in the spinal cord.
The nervous system prepares for rapid, coordinated movement in response to emotion.

Emotional Regulation

Frontal lobes evaluate emotional responses, receiving input from the amygdala and sensory areas.
Appropriate responses are generated or emotional reactions are reduced as needed.
Constant communication between brain regions helps maintain emotional balance.

Experiencing Emotions: Theories

James-Lange Theory: Physiological reactions precede and determine emotional experience.
Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotional feelings and physiological responses occur simultaneously.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions can influence emotional states.
Empirical support is stronger for the James-Lange theory, especially regarding facial feedback.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Developed by Schachter and Singer: Emotion arises from physical arousal and cognitive labeling.
Experiments show that cognitive interpretation of arousal shapes emotional experience.
Misattribution of arousal (e.g., Dutton and Aron's bridge study) supports this theory.

Expressing Emotions

Polygraph tests measure ANS responses but are unreliable for lie detection.
Paul Ekman's microexpression analysis can reveal true emotions but not motives.
Facial expressions and body language are primary methods of emotional communication.
Cultural differences affect expression and interpretation of emotions.

Emotional Faces and Bodies

Facial expressions involve specific muscle movements (e.g., orbicularis oculi, zygomatic major for smiling).
Expressions of disgust and fear have evolutionary functions (e.g., limiting air intake, increasing sensory input).
Facial expressions are universal; body language is also recognized across cultures.

Culture, Emotion, and Display Rules

Cultural emotional dialects: Unique ways of expressing emotions across cultures.
Display Rules: Cultural expectations about when and how to express emotions.
Intensity and interpretation of expressions vary by culture and over time.
Social media may be reducing cultural differences in emotional expression.

Culture, Context, and Emotion

Context affects emotional interpretation; Western cultures focus on the individual, Asian cultures consider group context.
Memory and attention to background figures differ by culture.
Perception of expressions is universal, but interpretation is culture-dependent.

Summary Tables

Table: Comparison of Eating Disorders

Disorder	Key Features	Prevalence (Women/Men)	Average Duration	Treatment Rate
Anorexia Nervosa	Self-starvation, fear of weight gain, body dissatisfaction	0.9% / 0.3%	1.7 years	34%
Bulimia Nervosa	Binge-eating, purging, cycles of deprivation	1.5% / 0.5%	8 years	43%

Table: Theories of Emotion

Theory	Main Idea	Key Evidence
James-Lange	Physiological response precedes emotion	Facial feedback studies
Cannon-Bard	Emotion and physiological response occur simultaneously	Critique: Organs respond too slowly
Two-Factor	Emotion = Arousal + Cognitive label	Schachter & Singer, Dutton & Aron studies

Table: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Level	Description
Physiological	Basic survival needs (food, water, rest)
Safety	Security, safety
Belongingness and Love	Relationships, friends
Esteem	Prestige, feeling of accomplishment
Cognitive	Knowledge, understanding
Aesthetic	Beauty, order
Self-Actualization	Achieving full potential

Table: Autonomic Nervous System Responses

System	Response
Sympathetic	Dilates pupils, increases heart rate, inhibits digestion, increases adrenal activity
Parasympathetic	Constricts pupils, decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion, decreases adrenal activity

Key Equations and Concepts

Energy Balance Equation:
Maslow's Hierarchy (Pyramid Representation):

Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and academic completeness.