Chapter One: The Study of Human Development – Key Concepts and Theories

The Study of Human Development

Defining Human Development

Human development is a multidisciplinary field that examines how and why people change and remain the same over time. It seeks to understand both the unique and universal aspects of individuals, drawing on theories and research from psychology and related sciences.

• Change and Stability: Investigates the processes behind growth, decline, and consistency throughout the lifespan.

• Individual Differences: Explores why people are both unique and similar to one another.

• Multidisciplinary Science: Integrates perspectives from psychology, biology, sociology, and more.

Recurring Issues in Human Development

Scholars have debated several fundamental issues in human development, which shape research and theory in the field.

• Nature vs. Nurture: Considers the relative influence of heredity (genetics) and environment (experiences) on development.

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Asks whether development is a smooth, gradual process or occurs in distinct stages.

• Universal vs. Context-Specific Development: Questions whether development follows a single universal path or varies across contexts and cultures.

Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework

The Biopsychosocial Framework

This framework identifies four key forces that interact to shape human development:

• Biological Forces: Genetic and health-related factors that influence growth and change.

• Psychological Forces: Cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and personality factors.

• Sociocultural Forces: Societal, cultural, ethnic, and interpersonal influences.

• Lifecycle Forces: The impact of identical events on people of different ages.

Neuroscience and Human Development

Neuroscience studies the relationship between brain activity and behavior, providing insights into how the four forces of the biopsychosocial framework interact.

• Brain-Behavior Relationships: Examines how changes in the brain correspond to changes in behavior and development.

• Integration of Forces: Helps researchers understand the complex interplay among biological, psychological, sociocultural, and lifecycle factors.

Developmental Theories

What Is a Theory?

A theory is an organized set of ideas designed to explain development. Theories are essential for making predictions about behavior, which can be tested through research. No single theory fully explains all aspects of human development.

• Purpose: To explain and predict developmental phenomena.

• Role in Research: Guides the design of studies and interpretation of findings.

Psychodynamic Theory

Originating with Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory posits that personality emerges from internal conflicts. Erik Erikson expanded this perspective, proposing a comprehensive lifespan view of psychosocial development.

• Key Concept: Development is shaped by the resolution of internal psychological conflicts at different stages of life.

• Erikson's Stages: Each stage presents a unique challenge that must be resolved for healthy development.

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial Stage	Age	Challenge
Trust vs. mistrust	Birth to 1 year	To develop a sense that the world is safe, a "good place"
Autonomy vs. shame	1 to 3 years	To realize that one is an independent person who can make decisions and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt	3 to 6 years	To develop the ability to try new things and to handle failure
Industry vs. inferiority	6 years to adolescence	To learn basic skills and to work with others
Identity vs. identity confusion	Adolescence	To develop a lasting, integrated sense of self
Intimacy vs. isolation	Young adulthood	To commit to another in a loving relationship
Generativity vs. stagnation	Middle adulthood	To contribute to younger people through child rearing, care, or other productive work
Integrity vs. despair	Late life	To view one's life as satisfactory and worth living