Chapter Three: Tools for Exploring the World – Physical, Perceptual, and Motor Development

Physical, Perceptual, and Motor Development

Introduction

This chapter explores the foundational aspects of infant development, focusing on physical growth, perceptual abilities, and motor skills. Understanding these processes is essential for comprehending how children interact with and learn about their environment.

The Newborn: Learning Objectives

Overview

• How do reflexes help newborns interact with the world?

• How do we determine whether a baby is healthy and adjusting to life outside the uterus?

• What behavioral states are common among newborns?

• What are the different features of temperament, and do they change as children grow?

The Newborn’s Reflexes

Definition and Importance

• Reflexes: Unlearned, automatic responses triggered by specific stimuli. These are present at birth and serve various functions.

• Certain reflexes have survival value:

  • Rooting: Turning the head toward a touch on the cheek, facilitating feeding.

  • Sucking: Enables feeding from breast or bottle.

  • Eye blinks: Protects eyes from bright light or foreign objects.

• Other reflexes are developmental precursors to later voluntary motor behaviors:

  • Stepping: Movements that are precursors to walking.

• Reflexes reflect the health of the child’s nervous system and are assessed by clinicians to detect neurological issues.

Assessing the Newborn

Apgar Scores

The Apgar score is a quick test performed on a newborn at 1 and 5 minutes after birth to assess physical condition.

• Five criteria:

  1. Breathing

  2. Heartbeat

  3. Muscle tone

  4. Reflexes

  5. Skin tone

• Each scored from 0 to 2, then summed:

Total Score	Interpretation
7+	Good physical condition
4-6	Needs special attention
3 or less	Life-threatening

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

• Includes 28 behavioral and 18 reflex items.

• Assesses four systems:

  • Autonomic: Body regulation (e.g., breathing).

  • Motor: Activity level and control of body.

  • State: Maintaining states (e.g., alertness).

  • Social: Interacting with people.

The Newborn’s States

Behavioral States

• Alert inactivity: Calm, eyes open and attentive, deliberately inspecting environment.

• Waking activity: Eyes open but unfocused, uncoordinated motions.

• Crying: Vigorous cries, agitated and uncoordinated motion.

• Sleeping: Eyes closed; degree of activity and quality of breathing alternate.

Crying

Types of Crying

• Basic cry: Starts softly and builds in volume and intensity; often seen when the child is hungry.

• Mad cry: More intense and louder.

• Pain cry: Starts with a loud wail, followed by a long pause, then gasping.

Sleeping

Patterns and REM Sleep

• Newborns sleep an average of 16-18 hours per day.

• Sleep cycles:

  • Newborns: 4-hour cycle; 3 hours sleep and 1 hour awake.

  • By 6 months: Sleep 10 to 12 hours at night.

• REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement):

  • 50% of newborn sleep.

  • 25% by 12 months.

Co-sleeping

Definition and Cultural Context

• Co-sleeping: Parents and children sleep together, common outside North America and important for bonding in cultures that value interdependence.

• Research does not support the idea that co-sleeping makes children less self-reliant.

• Co-sleeping is dangerous only when parents smoke, drink, or sleep with babies in unsafe places (sofas or chairs).

• Facilitates breastfeeding.

Sleep Routines in Early Childhood

• By toddler and preschool years, sleep routines are well established.

• Some preschoolers have difficulty sleeping, usually due to inconsistent bedtime routines.

• Establishing a nighttime routine helps children wind down from busy activities.

• Research does not support the idea that consistent routines make children less self-reliant.