Comprehensive Psychology Final Exam Review Notes

Introduction to Psychology: Comprehensive Overview of Key Psychological Terms and Concepts

Psychological Theories and Perspectives

• Behaviorism perspective of psychology: Focus on observable behavior and the effects of learning from the environment.

• Biological perspective of psychology: Emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior, including brain structures and neurochemistry.

• Cognitive perspective of psychology: Studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

• Humanist perspective of psychology: Highlights human potential, personal growth, and self-actualization.

• Psychodynamic perspective of psychology: Rooted in Freud’s theories, focusing on unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

• Functionalism: Focus on the purpose of behavior and mental processes in enabling adaptation to the environment.

• Structuralism: An early approach analyzing the basic elements of consciousness and experience.

• Psychoanalysis: Freud’s therapeutic approach examining unconscious motives and conflicts.

Key Psychologists and Researchers

• Abraham Maslow: Developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a model of human motivation.

• Carl Jung: Known for analytical psychology and concepts like archetypes and the collective unconscious.

• John Watson: Founder of behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior.

• Thorndike’s research: Law of effect and operant conditioning foundations.

• Harlow’s research: Studies on attachment using rhesus monkeys.

• Masters and Johnson’s research: Pioneering work on human sexual response and behavior.

• McClelland’s research: Focus on motivational needs such as achievement, affiliation, and power.

Biological and Nervous System Components

• Central nervous system (CNS): Comprised of the brain and spinal cord, controls most functions of the body and mind.

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Connects CNS to limbs and organs; includes somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

• Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary muscle movements and sensory information.

• Autonomic nervous system: Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

• Sympathetic nervous system: Prepares body for 'fight or flight' responses.

• Parasympathetic nervous system: Promotes 'rest and digest' functions.

• Neurons: Nerve cells responsible for transmitting information via electrical and chemical signals.

• Spinal cord: Pathway for information between the brain and body; controls motor reflexes.

• Cerebellum: Brain region important for coordination and balance.

• Amygdala: Brain structure involved in emotion processing, especially fear and aggression.

• Left hemisphere: Brain side specialized for language, logic, and analytical tasks.

• Right hemisphere: Brain side involved in spatial ability, creativity, and holistic thought.

Development and Reproduction

• Embryo: Early stage of prenatal development following fertilization.

• Fetus: Later stage of prenatal development where organs develop fully.

• Ovum: Female reproductive egg cell.

• Libido: Psychodynamic term for sexual drive or desire.

• Testosterone: Male sex hormone influencing development and behavior.

• Estrogen: Female sex hormone influencing reproductive cycles and behaviors.

• Melatonin: Hormone regulating circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.

• Circadian rhythms: Biological processes following a roughly 24-hour cycle.

Perception and Sensation

• Sensation: The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment.

• Absolute threshold: The smallest intensity of a stimulus detectable 50% of the time.

• Just noticeable difference (JND): The minimum difference between two stimuli detectable by a person.

• Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

• Psychophysics: Study of relationships between physical stimuli and perceptions.

• Receptors: Specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli.

Learning and Memory

• Encoding: The initial process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored.

• Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

• Episodic memory: Memory of personal experiences and events.

• Cue-dependent forgetting: Failure to recall information without appropriate cues.

• Decay: Loss of memory trace over time.

• Interference: When other information disrupts memory recall.

• Information processing model: Describes memory as a three-stage process: encoding, storage, retrieval.

• Aversive conditioning: Learning to associate a stimulus with unpleasant consequences.

• Flooding: Exposure therapy technique involving prolonged exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli.

• Systematic desensitization: Gradual exposure to feared stimuli combined with relaxation techniques.

Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation: Processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behaviors toward goals.

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: A pyramid of human needs from physiological to self-actualization.

• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's own ability to succeed in specific situations.

• Intrinsic reinforcement: Internal rewards such as satisfaction or enjoyment.

• Extrinsic reinforcement: External rewards such as praise or money.

• Passionate love: Intense emotional and physical attraction.

• Companionate love: Deep affection and commitment in long-term relationships.

• Emotion work: Managing feelings to fulfill the emotional requirements of a role.

• Rumination: Repetitive focus on negative thoughts or emotions.

Personality and Social Psychology

• Id: Freud’s unconscious reservoir of instinctual desires.

• Ego: Rational part that mediates between id and reality.

• Superego: Internalized societal and parental standards of morality.

• Defense Mechanism: Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, fixation).

• Repression: Blocking distressing thoughts from conscious awareness.

• Fixation: Persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.

• Oedipus complex: Freud’s theory of a child’s unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent.

• Projective tests: Psychological assessments that uncover unconscious motives (e.g., Rorschach).

• Transference: Redirecting feelings for one person towards another in therapy.

• Attachment theory: Study of emotional bonds between individuals, especially children and caregivers.

• Intimacy: Emotional closeness and connection in relationships.

• Insecurity: Feelings of uncertainty or anxiety about oneself.

• Self-efficacy: Confidence in one’s capabilities.

• Norms: Social rules and expectations guiding behavior.

• Social conventions: Accepted norms within a group or society.

• Stereotypes: Oversimplified generalizations about groups.

• Fairness bias: Preference for equitable treatment in social situations.

• Cultural mismatch: Conflict arising from differing cultural expectations.

Psychopathology and Disorders

• Depression: Mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

• Agoraphobia: Anxiety disorder involving fear of public or open spaces.

• Panic attacks: Sudden episodes of intense fear and physical symptoms.

• Binge-eating disorder: Recurrent episodes of excessive food consumption.

• Anorexia nervosa: Eating disorder involving severe food restriction and weight loss.

• Bulimia nervosa: Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors.

• Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders and maladaptive behaviors.

Learning and Conditioning

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.

• Approach-avoidance conflict: Motivational conflict involving a goal with both positive and negative aspects.

• Extrinsic reinforcement: Rewards coming from outside the individual.

Memory and Judgment

• Pre-reflective judgment: Immediate, uncritical acceptance of perceptions as facts.

• Reflective judgment: Critical evaluation and consideration of alternative perspectives.

Immune and Physical Health Components

• Antibodies: Proteins produced by white blood cells that fight pathogens.

• White blood cells: Cells that defend the body against infection.

• Replacement: Biological process of renewing cells or tissue.

Miscellaneous Biological Substances and Terms

• Fructose: A type of sugar found in many plants.

• Sucrose: Common table sugar composed of glucose and fructose.

• Pectin: A substance in fruits that acts as a fiber and gelling agent.

• Leptin: Hormone involved in regulating energy balance and hunger.

Other Concepts

• Effectors: Muscles or glands that carry out responses to stimuli.

• Roles: Expected behaviors associated with social positions.

• Indoctrination methods: Techniques used to instill beliefs or attitudes.

• Phrenology: Discredited theory linking skull shape to personality traits.