Comprehensive Study Guide: Introduction to Psychology (Exam 4 Topics)

Psychology and Scientific Thinking

Science as a Safeguard Against Biases

• Science is a systematic approach to evidence that helps protect against common cognitive biases and errors in reasoning.

• Common fallacies in thinking include:

  • Naïve Realism: The belief that we see the world precisely as it is, which can lead to errors in judgment.

  • Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them.

  • Belief Perseverance: The tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

  • Implying Causation from Correlation: Mistaking a relationship between two variables as evidence that one causes the other.

Major Theoretical Frameworks of Psychology

• There are five major schools of thought in psychology:

  1. Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener): Focuses on breaking down mental processes into their basic components.

  2. Functionalism (William James): Emphasizes the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

  3. Behaviorism (John Watson, B.F. Skinner): Studies observable behavior and the role of learning.

  4. Cognitivism (Ulric Neisser, Jean Piaget): Examines mental processes such as thinking, memory, and language.

  5. Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud): Focuses on unconscious processes and early life experiences.

• Each framework has contributed lasting concepts and methods to the field.

Research Methods

Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural context. Advantage: High ecological validity. Disadvantage: Lack of control over variables.

• Case Studies: In-depth study of one or a few individuals. Advantage: Rich detail. Disadvantage: Limited generalizability.

• Self-Report Measures & Surveys: Participants report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. Advantage: Efficient data collection. Disadvantage: Potential for bias (e.g., social desirability).

Experimental Methods

• Key components:

  • Random Selection/Sampling: Ensures the sample represents the population.

  • Random Assignment: Assigns participants to groups by chance, controlling for confounding variables.

• Potential Pitfalls: Confounding variables, placebo effects, experimenter bias.

• Control Methods: Blinding, randomization, use of control groups.

• Comparison: Experiments allow for causal inference; other methods (e.g., correlational) do not.

Reliability and Validity

• Test-Retest Reliability: Consistency of results over time.

• Inter-Item Reliability: Consistency among items within a test.

• Inter-Rater Reliability: Consistency among different observers or raters.

• External Validity: Generalizability of findings to real-world settings.

• Internal Validity: The extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship.

Biological Psychology

Neural Communication

• Electrical Communication: Neurons communicate via action potentials, which are rapid changes in electrical charge that travel down the axon.

• Key steps: Resting potential, depolarization, action potential, repolarization, refractory period.

• Chemical Communication: Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the next neuron.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Components

• Six major components:

  1. Cerebral Cortex

  2. Basal Ganglia

  3. Limbic System

  4. Cerebellum

  5. Brain Stem

  6. Spinal Cord

• Each part plays a specific role in behavior, such as movement, emotion, memory, and basic life functions.

Sensation and Perception

Visual System

• Physical Parts of the Eye: Cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve. Each part contributes to focusing and transmitting visual information.

• Rods: Photoreceptors sensitive to low light; important for night vision.

• Cones: Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and detail; function best in bright light.

Theories of Color Vision

• Trichromatic Theory: Color vision is based on three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.

• Opponent Process Theory: Color perception is controlled by opposing responses to pairs of colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

• Both theories are correct at different levels of visual processing.

Consciousness

Stages of Sleep

• Sleep progresses through several stages: NREM (stages 1-3) and REM sleep.

• NREM: Light to deep sleep, slow brain waves; REM: Rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, brain activity similar to wakefulness.

Sleep Disorders

• Five major sleep disorders:

  1. Insomnia

  2. Narcolepsy

  3. Sleep Apnea

  4. Night Terrors

  5. Sleepwalking

• Each disorder has distinct symptoms and effects on health.

Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Major terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally elicits a response.

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS.

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now elicits response after association.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS.

Operant Conditioning

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase behavior.

• Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Four types: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval. Each produces different response patterns.

Effective Study Techniques

• Two most effective: Practice Testing and Distributed Practice.

Memory

Memory Systems

• Three systems:

  1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.

  2. Short-Term Memory: Holds information temporarily; limited capacity and duration.

  3. Long-Term Memory: Stores information for extended periods; virtually unlimited capacity.

Subtypes of Long-Term Memory

• Explicit (declarative) vs. Implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Schemas

• Schemas: Organized knowledge structures that help with encoding and retrieval but can lead to memory errors.

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

• Encoding: Getting information into memory.

• Storage: Maintaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

• Encoding and retrieval conditions influence recall (e.g., context-dependent memory).

Amnesia

• Types: Anterograde (inability to form new memories) and Retrograde (loss of past memories).

Human Development

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Four stages:

  1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 yrs): Object permanence.

  2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Symbolic thought, egocentrism.

  3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events.

  4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract reasoning.

• Some aspects supported (e.g., stages), others (e.g., ages) revised by later research.

False-Belief Task

• Assesses understanding that others can hold beliefs different from reality; used to study theory of mind.

Attachment Styles

• Four styles: Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure-Anxious, Disorganized. Each shows distinct behaviors in the Strange Situation paradigm.

Kohlberg’s Model of Morality

• Three stages: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional. Each reflects different reasoning about right and wrong.

• Measured using moral dilemmas (e.g., Heinz dilemma).

• Criticisms include cultural bias, gender bias, and overemphasis on reasoning over behavior.

Emotion and Motivation

Theories of Emotion

• Discrete Emotions Theory: Emotions are innate and distinct.

• James-Lange Theory: Emotions result from physiological responses.

• Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

• Two-Factor Theory: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Universality and Cultural Approaches

• Some emotions are universal (e.g., happiness, fear), supporting evolutionary theories.

• Cultural differences influence emotional expression and experience.

Happiness

• Common myths: Money, youth, and life events do not guarantee happiness.

• Research: Social relationships, gratitude, and meaningful work contribute to happiness.

Evolutionary Models of Attraction

• Attraction influenced by evolutionary pressures (e.g., mate selection, physical cues).

Stress, Coping, and Health

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

• Three stages: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion. Describes the body’s response to stress.

Stress and Coronary Heart Disease

• Chronic stress increases risk for heart disease through physiological and behavioral pathways.

Social Psychology

Milgram Paradigm

• Classic study on obedience; involved a participant (teacher), experimenter, and confederate (learner).

• Tested willingness to obey authority figures even when actions conflicted with personal conscience.

Bystander Intervention

• Likelihood of helping decreases as number of bystanders increases (bystander effect).

• Factors: Ambiguity, diffusion of responsibility, perceived risk.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• People experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, leading to attitude change.

Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination

• Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about groups.

• Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward groups.

• Discrimination: Negative behaviors toward groups.

Intergroup Bias and Prejudice

• Roots: Social categorization, competition, social learning.

• Combating methods: Intergroup contact, education, cooperation.

Personality

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Id: Primitive drives; Ego: Reality-oriented mediator; Superego: Moral standards.

• Defense mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, displacement, etc.

• Psychosexual stages: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.

• Criticisms: Lack of scientific support, overemphasis on sexuality.

• Contributions: Importance of unconscious processes, early experience.

The Big Five Traits

• Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Each trait describes a continuum of personality characteristics.

Psychological Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobias, PTSD, OCD, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Tourette’s Disorder. Each has unique symptoms and diagnostic criteria.

Mood Disorders

• Major Depression: Persistent sadness, loss of interest.

• Bipolar Disorder: Alternating periods of depression and mania.

Personality Disorders

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions.

• Psychopathic Personality Disorder: Lack of empathy, superficial charm, manipulativeness.

Schizophrenia

• Symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, negative symptoms (e.g., flat affect).