Comprehensive Study Guide: Key Psychological Terms and Concepts

Psychological Theories and Perspectives

Major Perspectives in Psychology

Psychology encompasses various theoretical perspectives that guide research and practice. Each perspective offers unique insights into human behavior and mental processes.

• Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning from the environment. Example: Classical and operant conditioning.

• Biological Perspective: Emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior, including brain structures and neurochemistry.

• Cognitive Perspective: Studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

• Humanistic Perspective: Highlights human potential, personal growth, and self-actualization.

• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Rooted in Freud's theories, focusing on unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

• Functionalism: Focuses on how behavior and mental processes aid in adaptation to the environment.

• Structuralism: Early approach analyzing the basic elements of consciousness and mental experience.

• Psychodynamic Perspective: Freud's therapeutic approach examining unconscious motives and conflicts.

Key Psychologists and Researchers

Influential Figures in Psychology

Several psychologists have shaped the field through their theories and research.

• Abraham Maslow: Developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a model of human motivation.

• Carl Jung: Known for analytical psychology and concepts like archetypes and the collective unconscious.

• John Watson: Founder of behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior.

• Jean Piaget: Studied cognitive development in children, proposing stages of intellectual growth.

• Maslow's Research: Focused on motivational needs such as achievement, affiliation, and self-fulfillment.

Biological and Nervous System Components

Structure and Function of the Nervous System

The nervous system is essential for processing information and coordinating bodily functions.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprised of the brain and spinal cord; controls most functions of the body and mind.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects CNS to limbs and organs; includes somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movements and sensory information.

• Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

• Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares body for 'fight or flight' responses.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes 'rest and digest' activities.

• Neurons: Nerve cells responsible for transmitting information via electrical and chemical signals.

• Synapse: Junction where information transfers between two neurons.

• Cerebellum: Brain region important for coordination and balance.

• Amygdala: Brain structure associated with emotion, especially fear and anger.

• Right Hemisphere: Brain side specialized in spatial logic, creativity, and holistic thought.

• Left Hemisphere: Brain side involved in verbal ability, analytic, and logical thought.

Development and Reproduction

Stages of Human Development

Developmental psychology studies changes in behavior and mental processes across the lifespan.

• Embryo: Early stage of prenatal development following fertilization.

• Fetus: Later stage of prenatal development as organs develop fully.

• Puberty: Period of sexual maturation during adolescence.

• Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

• Temperament: Innate differences influencing emotional reactivity and behavior.

• Critical Periods: Times when particular developmental changes are most likely to occur.

• Menstrual Cycle: Monthly reproductive cycle in females.

Perception and Sensation

Processing Sensory Information

Sensation and perception are fundamental processes for interpreting the environment.

• Sensation: The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment.

• Absolute Threshold: Minimum intensity needed to detect a stimulus half the time.

• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.

• Transduction: The process of converting sensory information into neural signals.

• Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and perception.

• Receptors: Specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli.

Learning and Memory

Mechanisms of Learning and Memory

Learning involves acquiring new knowledge or skills, while memory refers to storing and retrieving information.

• Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored.

• Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

• Explicit Memory: Memory of personal experiences and events.

• Context-dependent Memory: Failure to recall information without appropriate cues.

• Decay Law: Loss of memory when unused.

• Short-Term Memory: Holds limited information briefly.

• Long-Term Memory: Stores information for extended periods.

• Three-Stage Model: Describes memory as a three-stage process: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

• Associative Learning: Learning to associate a stimulus with subsequent consequences.

• Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.

• Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to feared stimuli combined with relaxation techniques.

Motivation and Emotion

Understanding Motivation and Emotional Processes

Motivation drives behavior toward goals, while emotions influence thoughts and actions.

• Motivation: Processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behaviors toward goals.

• Self-Actualization: Highest human need in Maslow's hierarchy.

• Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation from within, such as enjoyment.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation from external rewards.

• Attachment: Emotional bond formed with significant others.

• Intimacy: Emotional closeness and connection in relationships.

• Self-Esteem: Evaluation of one's own worth.

• Social Roles: Expected patterns of behavior in society.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to attribute others' actions to personality rather than situation.

• Cultural Relativism: Perspective emphasizing cultural differences in behavior.

Personality and Social Psychology

Theories and Assessment of Personality

Personality psychology explores individual differences and social influences on behavior.

• Id, Ego, Superego: Freud's structural model of the mind.

• Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, projection).

• Oedipus Complex: Freud's theory of a child's unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent.

• Projective Tests: Psychological assessments that uncover unconscious motives (e.g., Rorschach).

• Transference: Redirecting feelings for one person towards another in therapy.

• Attachment Theory: Study of emotional bonds between individuals, especially children.

Psychopathology and Disorders

Mental Disorders and Their Characteristics

Psychopathology is the study of mental disorders and maladaptive behaviors.

• Depression: Mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

• Anxiety Disorders: Disorders marked by fear or panic and ongoing anxiety.

• Phobia: Strong irrational fear of a specific object or situation.

• Binge-Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of excessive food consumption.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Repetitive unwanted thoughts and behaviors.

Learning and Conditioning

Principles of Conditioning

Conditioning is a fundamental process in learning, involving associations between stimuli and responses.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.

• Punishment: Decreases behavior frequency by introducing an unpleasant consequence.

• Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Motivational conflict involving a goal with both positive and negative aspects.

• Learned Helplessness: Repeated exposure to uncontrollable events may result in passive behavior.

Memory and Judgment

Critical Thinking and Memory Processes

Memory and judgment are essential for decision-making and evaluating information.

• Pre-reflective Judgment: Immediate, uncritical acceptance of perceptions as facts.

• Reflective Judgment: Critical evaluation and consideration of alternative perspectives.

Immune and Physical Health Components

Biological Factors in Health

Physical health is influenced by biological substances and immune system components.

• Antibodies: Proteins produced by white blood cells that fight pathogens.

• White Blood Cells: Critical for immune defense against infection.

• Homeostasis: Biological process of the body seeking to maintain equilibrium.

Miscellaneous Biological Substances and Terms

Key Biological Substances

• Fructose: A type of sugar found in many plants.

• Sucrose: Common table sugar composed of glucose and fructose.

• Pectin: A substance in fruits that acts as a fiber and gelling agent.

• Leptin: Hormone involved in regulating energy balance and hunger.

Other Concepts

Additional Psychological Terms

• Effectors: Muscles or glands that carry out responses to stimuli.

• Roles: Expected behaviors associated with social positions.

• Indoctrination Methods: Techniques used to instill beliefs or attitudes.

• Phrenology: Discredited theory linking skull shape to personality traits.