Comprehensive Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Developmental Psychology

Learning and Behavioural Psychology

Behaviourism Theorists

Behaviourism is a school of psychology that focuses on observable behaviours and the processes by which they are learned. Key theorists include:

• Pavlov – Classical Conditioning

• Watson – Behaviourism and Emotional Conditioning

• Thorndike – Law of Effect, Connectionism

• Skinner – Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

• Pavlov's Research:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to US (e.g., salivation).

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit UR before conditioning (e.g., bell).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously NS, now elicits response after association (e.g., bell after pairing with food).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

• Factors in Classical Conditioning: Timing, frequency, and predictability of pairings affect learning strength.

• Stimulus Generalisation and Discrimination: Generalisation occurs when similar stimuli elicit the CR; discrimination is learning to respond only to specific stimuli.

• Extinction: The CR weakens when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

Watson's Research: Demonstrated conditioned emotional responses (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

• Classical Conditioning and the Brain: Involvement in taste aversion, chemotherapy, and emotional responses.

• Applications: Fear responses, drug use, advertising.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviours are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

• Differences from Classical Conditioning: Operant conditioning is based on voluntary behaviours and their consequences, while classical conditioning involves involuntary responses to stimuli.

• Skinner's Research:

  • Shaping: Gradually guiding behaviour toward a desired goal.

  • Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behaviour.

    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.

    • Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food).

    • Conditioned Reinforcers: Learned value (e.g., money).

  • Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behaviour.

    • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus.

    • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus.

  • Schedules of Reinforcement:

    • Continuous: Every response reinforced.

    • Partial: Only some responses reinforced.

    • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after set number of responses.

    • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after variable number of responses.

    • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after set time period.

    • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after variable time period.

• Other Concepts: Chaining, discrimination, generalization, delayed reinforcement, habituation, Premack principle, extinction.

Cognitive Perspectives on Learning

• Cognitive Learning: Involves mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem-solving, and remembering.

• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate behavioural evidence.

• Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

• Discovery Learning: Learning based on inquiry and exploration.

• Tolman & Honzik's Research: Cognitive maps and S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) theory.

Observational Learning

• Bandura's Social Learning Theory: Learning by observing others.

  • Four processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

  • Imitation and mirror neurons.

  • Media violence and real-world violence.

Memory and Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory

• Synaptic Changes: Long-term potentiation, dendritic changes.

• Brain Structures: Hippocampus, amygdala, hormones, and their roles in memory.

• Memory Deterioration: Biological bases of memory loss (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).

Akinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model

This model describes three types of memory stores:

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (iconic and echoic memory).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity and duration; subject to decay and interference.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity; includes:

  • Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Episodic (personal events) and semantic (facts).

  • Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory: Procedural (skills, habits), priming, classical conditioning.

Working Memory

• Components: Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, central executive.

Processes of Memory

• Encoding: Transforming information into a storable form.

• Storage: Maintaining information over time (shallow, deep, consolidation).

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information (recall, recognition, encoding specificity, state-dependent and mood-dependent memory).

Other Memory Topics

• Emotional Memories: Influence of emotion on memory strength.

• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.

• Ebbinghaus's Research: Curve of forgetting; rapid initial loss followed by slower decline.

• Causes of Forgetting: Decay, interference, retrieval failure.

• Age-Related Memory Loss: Changes in brain structure and function with aging.

Developmental Psychology

Principles of Growth and Development

• Physical growth trends, continuous vs. discontinuous development.

• Research designs: Cross-sectional, longitudinal.

• Nature vs. nurture influences.

Attachment

• Key Aspects: Theories of attachment, neurobiology, attachment styles.

• Ainsworth's Work: Strange Situation, attachment classifications.

Developmental Domains

• Physical, language, cognitive, and social-emotional development.

Stages of Development

• Prenatal Development: Stages, factors affecting development, prenatal care.

• Infancy: Brain development (myelination, synaptogenesis), sensory and motor development, reflexes, emotional development.

• Toddlerhood: Motor, emotional, and social development.

• Early Childhood: Brain, motor, social, and emotional development.

• Middle Childhood: Brain, motor, social, and emotional development.

• Adolescence: Brain, physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development.

• Emerging Adulthood: Transition to adulthood, continued development.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget's Theory: Stages of cognitive development, schema, assimilation, accommodation.

• Stages:

  • Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Object permanence.

  • Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Egocentrism, conservation.

  • Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking, mastery of conservation.

• Contributions and Challenges: Evaluation of Piaget's work.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

• Key Concepts: More knowledgeable other, zone of proximal development, scaffolding, importance of language.

• Contributions: Emphasis on social and cultural context in cognitive development.

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

• Piaget emphasized stages and individual discovery; Vygotsky emphasized social interaction and cultural tools.

Example Table: Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedule	Description	Example
Fixed Ratio	Reinforcement after a set number of responses	Piecework pay
Variable Ratio	Reinforcement after a variable number of responses	Slot machines
Fixed Interval	Reinforcement after a set period of time	Weekly paycheck
Variable Interval	Reinforcement after a variable period of time	Pop quizzes

Key Equations and Concepts

• Law of Effect (Thorndike): Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur.

• Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus): $Retention = e^{-kt}$, where $k$ is a constant and $t$ is time.

Additional info: This guide expands on the syllabus outline by providing definitions, examples, and context for each topic, ensuring a self-contained resource for exam preparation.