Comprehensive Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Developmental Psychology

Learning and Behavioural Psychology

Behaviourism Theorists

Behaviourism is a foundational approach in psychology that focuses on observable behaviours and the ways they are learned. Key theorists include:

• Pavlov: Known for classical conditioning research with dogs.

• Watson: Extended classical conditioning to humans (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

• Thorndike: Developed the Law of Effect and connectionism.

• Skinner: Pioneered operant conditioning and reinforcement theory.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

• Pavlov's Research:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to US (e.g., salivation).

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not elicit the UR (e.g., bell).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously NS, now elicits response after association (e.g., bell after pairing with food).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

  • Factors in Classical Conditioning: Timing, frequency, and predictability of pairings.

  • Stimulus Generalisation and Discrimination: Generalisation is responding similarly to similar stimuli; discrimination is distinguishing between different stimuli.

  • Extinction: Weakening of CR when CS is presented without US.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after a rest period.

• Watson's Research: Demonstrated conditioned emotional responses (e.g., fear in Little Albert).

• Classical Conditioning and the Brain: Involvement in adaptive value (e.g., taste aversion, chemotherapy), and real-life applications (e.g., advertising, drug use).

• Systematic Desensitization: Therapeutic technique to reduce phobias using gradual exposure.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, such as rewards and punishments.

• Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning: Classical involves association between stimuli; operant involves consequences of behaviour.

• Skinner's Research:

  • Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour.

  • Reinforcement:

    • Positive: Adding a pleasant stimulus.

    • Negative: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.

    • Primary: Innately reinforcing (e.g., food).

    • Conditioned: Learned value (e.g., money).

  • Punishment:

    • Positive: Adding an unpleasant stimulus.

    • Negative: Removing a pleasant stimulus.

  • Schedules of Reinforcement:

    • Continuous: Every response reinforced.

    • Partial: Only some responses reinforced.

    • Fixed Ratio/Interval: Reinforcement after set number/time.

    • Variable Ratio/Interval: Reinforcement after varying number/time.

• Why Do We Seek Reinforcement?: Involvement of the nucleus accumbens and dopamine in reward pathways.

• Other Concepts: Chaining, discrimination/generalization, delayed reinforcement, habituation, Premack principle, extinction.

Cognitive Perspectives on Learning

Cognitive theories emphasize mental processes in learning.

• Cognitive Learning: Includes cognitive maps, latent learning, and discovery learning (Tolman & Honzik).

• Observational Learning: Bandura's social learning theory; involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Media violence and mirror neurons are relevant topics.

Memory and Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory

Memory involves complex neural processes and structures.

• Synaptic Changes: Long-term potentiation, dendritic changes.

• Brain Structures: Hippocampus, amygdala, hormones, and their roles in memory.

• Memory Deterioration: Biological bases of memory loss (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).

Akinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model

This model describes three types of memory stores:

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (iconic and echoic memory).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity; subject to decay and interference (proactive and retroactive).

• Long-Term Memory (LTM):

  • Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Episodic (events) and semantic (facts).

  • Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory: Procedural (skills, habits), priming, and classical conditioning.

• Working Memory: Includes phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and central executive.

• Event Memory: Cultural component.

• Autobiographical Memory: Personal life events.

Processes of Memory

• Storage: Levels of processing (shallow, deep, consolidation).

• Retrieval: Recall, recognition, encoding specificity, state-dependent and mood-dependent memory.

Other Memory Topics

• Emotional Memories: Influence of emotion on memory retention.

• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.

• Ebbinghaus's Research: Curve of forgetting.

• Causes of Forgetting: Decay, interference, retrieval failure.

• Age-Related Memory Loss: Changes in the brain with aging.

Developmental Psychology

Principles and Research in Development

• Principles of Growth & Development: Patterns and trends in physical and psychological growth.

• Research Design: Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.

• Nature-Nurture Influences: Genetic and environmental factors.

Attachment

• Key Aspects: Theories of attachment, neurobiology, and attachment styles.

• Ainsworth's Work: Strange Situation, attachment problems.

Developmental Domains

• Physical Development

• Cognitive Development

• Social-Emotional Development

Stages of Development

• Prenatal Development: Stages, factors affecting development, prenatal care.

• Infancy (birth to 1 year): Myelination, synaptogenesis, sensory and motor development, reflexes, emotional development.

• Toddlerhood (1-2.5 years): Motor, brain, and emotional development.

• Early Childhood (2.5-6 years): Motor, social, and emotional development.

• Middle Childhood (6-12 years): Brain, physical, social, and emotional development.

• Adolescence (12-18 years): Brain, physical, and social-emotional development.

• Emerging Adulthood (18 to mid-late twenties): Transition to adulthood.

Cognitive Development Theories

• Piaget's Theory: Stages of cognitive development, schema, assimilation, accommodation.

  • Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2 yrs): Object permanence.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs): Egocentrism, conservation.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events.

• Evaluation of Piaget: Contributions and challenges.

• Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: More knowledgeable other, zone of proximal development, scaffolding, language importance.

• Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky: Differences in emphasis on social context and language.

Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Association between two stimuli	Association between behaviour and consequence
Involuntary responses	Voluntary responses
Pavlov, Watson	Skinner
US, UR, CS, CR	Reinforcement, punishment, schedules

Additional info: This guide expands on the syllabus outline by providing definitions, examples, and context for each major topic, ensuring a self-contained resource for exam preparation.