Comprehensive Study Notes: Learning, Memory, and Development in Psychology

Learning

Definition and Overview

Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior, thought, or knowledge that results from experience or practice. It is distinct from changes due to maturation, which are not learned.

• Example: Avoiding a hot stove after being burned once.

• Not all change is due to learning; some is maturation.

Classical Conditioning

Principles and Terminology

Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov. It involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a similar response.

Term	Definition	Example
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)	Naturally triggers a response	Food
UCR (Unconditioned Response)	Unlearned, automatic reaction to UCS	Salivation to food
NS (Neutral Stimulus)	Stimulus that initially causes no response	Bell before training
CS (Conditioned Stimulus)	Previously neutral, now triggers response after pairing	Bell after training
CR (Conditioned Response)	Learned reaction to CS	Salivation to bell

• Acquisition: Pairing NS and UCS repeatedly to form the association.

• Best timing: CS should come before UCS by only a few seconds.

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivated to a metronome after repeated pairings with food.

Advanced Concepts

• Second-Order Conditioning: Pairing a strong CS with a new NS to create a second CS.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned one (e.g., Little Albert feared all white furry objects after being conditioned to fear a white rat).

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar ones.

• Extinction: The weakening or disappearance of a learned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period.

Applications

• Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Emotional reactions learned through classical conditioning (e.g., fear of dentist’s drill after painful experiences).

• Vicarious Conditioning: Learning through watching someone else react emotionally (e.g., a child fears dogs after watching a sibling cry when a dog barks).

• Conditioned Taste Aversion: Learning to avoid a food that caused illness, often after one pairing. Explains biological preparedness for survival.

• Counterconditioning: Replacing an unwanted CR with a desirable one using positive associations (e.g., relaxation techniques to counter anxiety during therapy).

Operant Conditioning

Principles and Key Figures

Operant conditioning is learning based on voluntary behavior and its consequences, discovered by Edward Thorndike and developed by B.F. Skinner.

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are likely to be repeated; those followed by unpleasant outcomes are not.

• Skinner Box: Rats pressed levers to receive food (reinforcement).

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood a behavior will occur again.

Type	Description	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Add something pleasant	Getting paid for work
Negative Reinforcement	Remove something unpleasant	Taking aspirin to remove a headache
Primary Reinforcer	Satisfies basic need	Food, water, touch
Secondary Reinforcer	Learned through association	Money, praise, grades

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases behavior.

Type	Description	Example
Positive Punishment	Add something unpleasant	Getting yelled at
Negative Punishment	Remove something pleasant	Losing phone privileges

• Should be immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement of desired behavior.

• Overuse can cause fear, avoidance, and lying.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Interval: Reward after set time (e.g., paycheck every 2 weeks).

• Variable Interval: Reward after varying time (e.g., fishing, checking texts).

• Fixed Ratio: Reward after set number of responses (e.g., buy 10 coffees, get one free).

• Variable Ratio: Reward after unpredictable number (e.g., slot machines—most addictive).

Other Operant Conditioning Concepts

• Discriminative Stimulus: Cue indicating when reinforcement is available (e.g., "Open" sign).

• Extinction (Operant): Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops.

• Generalization: Responding to similar situations.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a previously reinforced behavior.

Behavior Modification

• Shaping: Reinforcing successive steps toward a goal behavior.

• Token Economy: Earn tokens for good behavior—exchange for rewards.

• Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Uses shaping to teach adaptive skills.

• Biofeedback/Neurofeedback: Controlling physiological responses using monitoring devices.

Instinctive Drift

When learned behaviors revert to biological instincts (e.g., raccoons rubbing coins instead of depositing them).

Cognitive Learning Theories

Major Theories and Experiments

• Tolman – Latent Learning: Learning occurs without immediate reinforcement; rats formed a cognitive map of mazes before reward was given.

• Köhler – Insight Learning: Sudden "Aha!" realization of solution (chimps stacking boxes for bananas).

• Seligman – Learned Helplessness: Repeated failure leads to stop trying (dogs in shock boxes; parallels depression).

• Bandura – Observational Learning: Learning by modeling others’ behavior. Four elements: Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation. Example: Bobo Doll Experiment—children imitated aggressive adults.

Memory

Information Processing Model

Memory works like a computer:

• Encoding: Transform info into a usable form.

• Storage: Retain info over time.

• Retrieval: Access stored info when needed.

Example: Hearing a song (encoding), remembering it (storage), singing it later (retrieval).

Three-Box Model of Memory

1. Sensory Memory

2. Short-Term Memory

3. Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

• Iconic (visual): Lasts ~0.5 sec.

• Echoic (auditory): Lasts 2–4 sec.

• Attention transfers info to short-term memory.

Short-Term (Working) Memory

• Holds ~20–30 seconds of info; limited capacity.

• Miller’s Magic Number: 7 ± 2 items (newer: 4 ± 1 chunks).

• Chunking: Grouping items into meaningful units (e.g., 949–555–2134).

• Rehearsal: Repeating info to retain it temporarily.

• Serial Position Effect: Better recall for first and last list items.

• Working Memory: Active manipulation of info using three components: Central Executive, Phonological Loop, and Visual Sketchpad.

Long-Term Memory

Essentially limitless storage for extended periods.

Type	Subtype	Example
Explicit (Declarative)	Semantic: Facts (e.g., "Paris is in France") Episodic: Events (e.g., first day of school)	General knowledge, personal experiences
Implicit (Nondeclarative)	Procedural: Skills, habits (e.g., riding a bike) Classically Conditioned: Emotional associations Priming: Faster recall due to prior exposure	Motor skills, emotional responses

Retrieval

• Recall: Pull info without cues (e.g., essay).

• Recognition: Match to known info (e.g., multiple choice).

• Encoding Specificity: Better recall in same context/environment.

• State-Dependent Learning: Same emotional state improves recall.

• Priming: One stimulus unconsciously influences later behavior.

Memory Organization

• Associative Networks: Related ideas connected by meaning. Activating one node (like "beach") triggers related ones (sand, ocean, sun).

Eidetic Memory

Photographic-like recall, more common in children, rare in adults.

Development Across the Life Span

Research Methods

• Longitudinal: Same group over time.

• Cross-Sectional: Compare different ages at once.

• Cross-Sequential: Combines both.

• Cohort Effect: Differences due to generational influences.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: Genetics, biology.

• Nurture: Environment, upbringing.

• Behavior Genetics: How genes and environment influence behavior.

Dominant vs. Recessive Genes

• Dominant: Expressed trait (e.g., brown eyes).

• Recessive: Only expressed when paired (e.g., blue eyes).

• Twins: Monozygotic (identical): One egg splits. Dizygotic (fraternal): Two eggs, two sperm.

Newborn Senses and Reflexes

• Most functional newborn sense: Touch.

• Least functional: Vision.

• Reflexes: Rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Stage	Age	Major Milestones
Sensorimotor	0–2 yrs	Object permanence; goal-directed behavior; sensory exploration
Preoperational	2–7 yrs	Egocentrism, lack of conservation, pretend play, language growth
Concrete Operational	7–11 yrs	Logical thinking about concrete objects; conservation; reversibility
Formal Operational	12+ yrs	Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, planning ahead

• Assimilation: Adding new info into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Adjusting schemas for new info.

• Example: Calling a cow "dog"—learns to accommodate that "dog" only fits certain animals.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Scaffolding: Gradual help that decreases as skill grows.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Range between what a child can do alone vs. with help.

Temperament (3 Types)

1. Easy: Regular routines, adaptable.

2. Difficult: Irregular, intense reactions.

3. Slow-to-Warm-Up: Low activity, adjusts slowly.

Attachment Theories

Harlow: Baby monkeys preferred soft cloth "mothers"—emotional comfort matters more than food. Bowlby: Attachment is an innate survival system; parents are secure base + safe haven. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation:

Type	Behavior on Separation	Behavior on Reunion
Secure	Distressed	Easily soothed
Avoidant	Indifferent	Avoids parent
Ambivalent/Resistant	Extremely distressed	Angry or not soothed
Disorganized	Confused, fearful	Mixed responses

Attachment style influenced by caregiver sensitivity, temperament, and culture. Secure attachment = higher trust, better relationships later.

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)

Type	Characteristics	Typical Outcome
Authoritative	High control, high responsiveness	Best outcomes (independent, confident)
Authoritarian	High control, low responsiveness	Obedient but anxious or withdrawn
Permissive	Low control, high responsiveness	Immature, impulsive
Uninvolved	Low control, low responsiveness	Poor social & academic outcomes

Cultural context matters! In collectivist cultures, authoritarian may not be harmful.

Adolescent Development

• Personal Fable: Belief that one’s experiences are unique (“It won’t happen to me”).

• Imaginary Audience: Belief that everyone is watching/judging you.

• Puberty: Biological changes leading to sexual maturity; triggers mood swings and body awareness.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

1. Preconventional: Behavior based on consequences (rewards/punishments).

2. Conventional: Behavior based on laws and social approval.

3. Postconventional: Based on personal ethics and justice principles.

Kübler-Ross Stages of Dying/Grief

1. Denial

2. Anger

3. Bargaining

4. Depression

5. Acceptance