Developing Through the Life Span: Key Concepts in Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues

Nature and Nurture

Developmental psychology explores how genetic inheritance (nature) interacts with environmental experiences (nurture) to shape human development.

• Nature: Refers to genetic and biological factors influencing development.

• Nurture: Refers to environmental influences, such as upbringing, culture, and experiences.

• Example: Language acquisition is influenced by both genetic predispositions and exposure to language in the environment.

Continuity and Stages

Psychologists debate whether development is a gradual, continuous process or occurs in distinct stages.

• Continuity: Developmental changes occur gradually over time.

• Stages: Development occurs in abrupt transitions, with each stage having unique characteristics.

• Example: Piaget’s theory proposes distinct cognitive stages, while other theories suggest more continuous change.

Stability and Change

This issue concerns which traits persist throughout life and which are subject to change.

• Stable traits: Temperament and personality may remain consistent.

• Changing traits: Attitudes and coping strategies can evolve with experience.

Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors at each stage.

• Language learning in utero: Fetuses show preference for their mother’s voice and language, indicating early learning.

• Placenta: Screens out most harmful substances, but some (teratogens) can pass through.

• Teratogens: Agents such as drugs or viruses that can cause harm to the developing fetus.

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Caused by maternal alcohol consumption; leads to physical and cognitive abnormalities.

• Maternal stress: Increases risk for health problems in the child.

The Competent Newborn

Newborns display automatic reflex responses and show early signs of learning and recognition.

• Reflexes: Rooting, sucking, startle, and grasping are automatic responses to stimuli.

• Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimulation, indicating learning.

• Gazing and maternal scent: Newborns prefer familiar sights and smells, especially those of their mother.

Physical Development

Brain Development

The brain undergoes rapid growth and change during early childhood, influenced by both nature and nurture.

• Neural network branching: Rapid formation of connections after birth.

• Frontal lobes: Most rapid growth from ages 3 to 6; development continues into adolescence.

• Neural pruning: Unused connections are eliminated, increasing efficiency.

• Critical period: Certain skills must be acquired during specific time windows.

• Plasticity: The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize.

Motor Development

Motor skills develop in a universal sequence, influenced by maturation, genes, and culture.

• Skill development: Depends on maturation of muscles and nervous system.

• Genes: Provide the blueprint for motor development.

• Culture: Can affect the timing and encouragement of motor milestones.

Brain Maturation and Infant Memory

Memory circuits are disrupted by rapid neuron growth, leading to infantile amnesia. Memory abilities mature over time.

• Infantile amnesia: Inability to recall memories from early childhood.

• Rovee-Collier experiment: Demonstrated that infants can learn and remember (mobile kicking experiment).

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Theory and Core Concepts

Jean Piaget proposed that children construct mental models and progress through distinct cognitive stages.

• Schema: Mental frameworks for organizing information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to fit new information.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): Learning through senses and actions; gradual development of object permanence.

• Preoperational stage (until age 6 or 7): Use of words and images; symbolic thinking and pretend play; lack of conservation; egocentrism; theory of mind develops.

• Concrete operational stage (about age 7 to 11): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding of conservation and mathematical transformations.

• Formal operational stage (about age 12 onward): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, deduction of consequences.

Vygotsky’s Social Child Theory

Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and language in cognitive development.

• Scaffolding: Temporary support provided to help children achieve higher levels of thinking.

• Language: Facilitates social mentoring and forms the basis for thought.

Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory

• Contributions: Identified cognitive milestones and stimulated research.

• Criticisms: Development is more continuous; some abilities appear earlier; some concepts overlooked.

• Implications: Young children are incapable of adult logic; cognitive development is active; early immaturity is adaptive.

Social Development

Attachment

Attachment is the emotional bond between child and caregiver, crucial for social and emotional development.

• Attachment behaviors: Seeking closeness, distress upon separation.

• Origins: Body contact, familiarity, secure base provision.

• Imprinting: Rapid attachment in animals during a critical period.

Attachment Differences

Mary Ainsworth’s "strange situation" research identified secure and insecure attachment styles.

• Secure attachment: Child feels safe and comforted by caregiver.

• Insecure attachment: Child shows anxiety or avoidance.

• Temperament: Individual differences in emotional reactivity and intensity.

• Attachment styles: Influence later relationships; persistent physiological differences observed.

Attachment Styles and Later Relationships

• Sensitive, loving relationships: Foster basic trust and positive adult relationships (Erikson).

• Insecure attachment: Includes anxious and avoidant styles.

Deprivation of Attachment

Children deprived of attachment may face developmental challenges, but some show resilience.

• Outcomes: Heightened stress responses, altered gene expression (epigenetic marks).

• Resilience: Some children overcome adversity and develop mental toughness.

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)

Style	Description
Authoritarian	Coercive, strict rules, little warmth
Permissive	Unrestraining, few demands, high warmth
Negligent	Uninvolved, indifferent, minimal interaction
Authoritative	Confrontive, demanding but responsive

Culture and Child Raising

Child-raising practices reflect cultural values and vary across societies.

• Examples: North America, upper-class British, Asian, and African cultures have distinct approaches.

• Children thrive: Under various child-raising systems.

Adolescence

Physical Development

Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by puberty and independence.

• Puberty: Period of sexual maturation; sequence of changes is predictable, timing varies.

• Brain development: Increased connections, selective pruning, myelin growth.

• Hormonal surge: Contributes to impulsiveness and emotional storms.

The Teenage Brain

• Selective pruning: Unused neurons and connections are eliminated.

• Myelin development: Improves speed and efficiency of neural transmission.

• Legal implications: APA and Supreme Court rulings recognize adolescent brain immaturity.

Impulse Control vs. Reward Seeking

Adolescents often show lagging impulse control compared to reward-seeking behaviors.

Cognitive Development in Adolescence

• Formal operations: Abstract, hypothetical reasoning (Piaget).

• Moral reasoning: Guides moral actions; influenced by conscious and unconscious processes.

• Critical tasks: Discerning right from wrong, developing character, empathy.

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking

Level	Description
Preconventional	Self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards
Conventional	Uphold laws and rules for social approval or order
Postconventional	Actions reflect belief in basic rights and ethical principles

• Moral intuition (Haidt): Morality is rooted in intuitive feelings; dual processing allows for manual override.

• Moral action: Depends on social influences and ability to delay gratification.

Social Development in Adolescence

Forming an Identity

• Identity: Sense of self; influenced by group and social identity.

• Intimacy: Forming close relationships.

Parent and Peer Relationships

• Peer influence: Increases during adolescence; parental influence diminishes.

• Selection effect: Adolescents choose peers with similar interests.

• Parent–child arguments: Common, but positive relations are important.

Emerging Adulthood

Emerging adulthood is considered a distinct developmental stage between adolescence and full independence.

Adulthood

Physical Changes in Middle and Late Adulthood

• Middle adulthood: Gradual decline in strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and fertility.

• Late adulthood: Continued decrease in physical abilities; weakened immune system; cognitive declines; neural plasticity compensates.

• Exercise: Slows aging, enhances health, and slows Alzheimer’s progression.

Cognitive Development in Adulthood

• Aging and memory: Some memories are retained well; individual differences in learning and memory.

• Tip-of-the-tongue: Forgetting occurs more frequently with age.

• Brain fitness: Programs improve trained tasks; limited generalization.

• Terminal decline: Memory and intelligence decline closer to death.

Social Development in Adulthood

• Midlife crisis: Major events, not age, trigger crisis for some adults.

• Social clock: Cultural timing of life events varies.

• Chance events: Can impact life path.

Basic Aspects of Adult Life (Erikson)

• Intimacy: Forming close relationships.

• Generativity: Being productive and supporting future generations.

• Love: Monogamous pairing, similarity of interests, emotional and material support, self-disclosure.

• Work: Interests, competence, accomplishment.

Well-Being Across the Life Span

• Well-being: Related to life satisfaction, positive feelings, emotional control, and relationships.

• Aging brain: Nurtures positive feelings; negative feelings fade faster.

Biopsychosocial Influences on Aging

Aging is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

• Biological: Genetic predispositions, health, and physical changes.

• Psychological: Coping strategies, personality, and mental health.

• Social: Support networks, cultural values, and life events.