Development, Sex & Gender, and Social Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Development Through the Lifespan

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that individuals experience throughout their lifespan. Researchers aim to understand how people grow and change from infancy through old age.

• Physical Development: Changes in body structure and function over time.

• Cognitive Development: Changes in thinking, problem-solving, and information processing.

• Social Development: Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality.

Landmarks of Development

Developmental psychologists use milestones to observe and measure progress in various domains.

• Chronological Age vs. Stage: Development can be measured by age or by stages (e.g., infancy, childhood, adolescence).

• Types of Skills: Motor, cognitive, and social skills develop at different rates.

Table: Types of Child Play by Age

Age	Type of Play	Example
Infancy	Solitary Play	Playing alone with toys
Toddler	Parallel Play	Playing side by side, not interacting
Preschool	Associative Play	Interacting, sharing toys
School Age	Cooperative Play	Organized games with rules

Critical Periods and Plasticity

Certain periods in development are critical for acquiring specific skills. If stimulation does not occur during these periods, development may be impaired.

• Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

• Critical Period: A time when the brain is especially receptive to certain stimuli.

Cognitive and Moral Development

Schemas and Cognitive Processes

Schemas are mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information. They are essential for understanding how children learn and adapt to their environment.

• Schema: A concept or framework that organizes information.

• Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through four stages of cognitive development:

• Sensorimotor (Birth-2 yrs): Experience world through senses and actions. Object permanence develops.

• Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Use language, but lack logical reasoning. Egocentrism and animism are common.

• Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Think logically about concrete events. Conservation develops.

• Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory describes how moral reasoning develops in stages:

• Preconventional: Obedience and punishment orientation.

• Conventional: Social approval and law/order orientation.

• Postconventional: Abstract principles and ethical reasoning.

Social and Emotional Development

Attachment Theory

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between child and caregiver. Mary Ainsworth identified different attachment styles using the Strange Situation experiment:

• Secure Attachment: Child is comforted by caregiver's return.

• Insecure Attachment: Child is avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized.

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles influence children's development and behavior.

Parenting Style	Characteristics	Outcomes
Authoritative	High warmth, high control	High self-esteem, social competence
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control	Obedient, lower happiness
Permissive	High warmth, low control	Impulsive, less self-discipline
Uninvolved	Low warmth, low control	Low self-esteem, poor outcomes

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Biological and Social Aspects of Gender

Sex is determined by biological factors (chromosomes, hormones), while gender refers to social and psychological identity.

• Sex: Biological status as male (XY) or female (XX).

• Gender Identity: Personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

• Gender Roles: Societal expectations for behavior based on gender.

Gender Development and Diversity

Gender identity can be fluid and is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. Transgender and nonbinary identities are increasingly recognized.

• Transgender: Gender identity differs from assigned sex at birth.

• Nonbinary: Gender identity does not fit within the traditional categories of male or female.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to patterns of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

• Heterosexual: Attraction to opposite sex.

• Homosexual: Attraction to same sex.

• Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.

• Asexual: Lack of sexual attraction.

Sexual Response and Dysfunction

Sexual response cycle includes excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Sexual dysfunctions can affect any phase and may be psychological or physiological.

• Sexual Dysfunction: Problems with sexual desire, arousal, or satisfaction.

• Paraphilic Disorders: Unusual sexual interests causing distress or harm.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

STIs are diseases transmitted through sexual contact. Prevention includes safe sex practices and education.

• HIV/AIDS: Virus that attacks the immune system; medical advances have improved outcomes.

Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology studies how people think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It examines the influence of groups, social norms, and interpersonal relationships.

• Social Influence: How others affect our attitudes and behaviors.

• Group Dynamics: How group membership affects individual behavior.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explains how people interpret the causes of behavior.

• Internal Attribution: Behavior is due to personal traits.

• External Attribution: Behavior is due to situational factors.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational factors.

Attitudes and Behavior

Attitudes are beliefs or feelings about people, objects, or ideas. They can influence behavior, especially when they are strong or specific.

• Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious beliefs.

• Explicit Attitudes: Conscious beliefs.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes or beliefs.

Compliance, Persuasion, and Obedience

Compliance refers to changing behavior in response to a direct request. Persuasion involves changing attitudes through communication. Obedience is following orders from an authority figure.

• Milgram's Obedience Study: Demonstrated the power of authority in influencing behavior.

• Factors Affecting Obedience: Proximity to authority, group pressure, legitimacy of authority.

Conformity and Group Influence

Conformity is adjusting behavior to match group norms. Group polarization and groupthink can lead to extreme or irrational decisions.

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance in presence of others.

• Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in groups.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Table: Social Influence Phenomena

Phenomenon	Social Context	Psychological Effect	Behavioral Effect
Social Facilitation	Group presence	Heightened arousal	Improved performance on simple tasks
Social Loafing	Group work	Reduced accountability	Lowered effort
Deindividuation	Large group, anonymity	Loss of self-awareness	Impulsive, deviant acts

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is negative behavior. Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about groups.

• Implicit Bias: Unconscious prejudice.

• Stereotype Threat: Risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group.

• Scapegoating: Blaming others for personal problems.

Helping Behavior and Bystander Effect

Helping behavior is influenced by situational factors, such as the presence of others. The bystander effect describes reduced likelihood of helping when others are present.

• Altruism: Helping others without expectation of reward.

• Bystander Effect: Diffusion of responsibility in groups.

Additional info: These notes expand on the study guide by providing definitions, examples, and tables for key concepts in developmental, gender, and social psychology.