Development Through the Lifespan & Social Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Development Through the Lifespan

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the human lifespan. It seeks to understand how people grow and change from infancy through old age.

• Physical Development: Changes in body structure and function over time.

• Cognitive Development: Changes in thinking, problem-solving, and information processing.

• Social Development: Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality.

Landmarks of Development

Developmental psychologists use milestones to observe and measure progress in various domains.

• Chronological Age: Age in years since birth.

• Developmental Age: Level of functioning in a specific domain.

Types of Studies

• Longitudinal Studies: Follow the same individuals over time.

• Cross-sectional Studies: Compare individuals of different ages at one point in time.

Stages of Prenatal Development

Development begins before birth and is divided into several stages:

• Germinal Stage: First two weeks after conception.

• Embryonic Stage: Weeks 3-8; major organs and structures begin to form.

• Fetal Stage: Week 9 to birth; growth and maturation of tissues and organs.

Critical Periods and Plasticity

Certain periods in development are critical for acquiring specific skills or abilities. Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

• Critical Period: A time when certain experiences must occur for normal development.

• Sensitive Period: Optimal time for learning specific skills.

Cognitive and Moral Development

Cognitive development involves changes in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving. Moral development refers to changes in understanding right and wrong.

• Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage	Age Range	Key Features
Sensorimotor	Birth-2 yrs	Object permanence, sensory exploration
Preoperational	2-7 yrs	Symbolic thinking, egocentrism
Concrete Operational	7-11 yrs	Logical thinking, conservation
Formal Operational	12+ yrs	Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level	Stage	Description
Preconventional	1-2	Obedience and punishment, self-interest
Conventional	3-4	Conformity, law and order
Postconventional	5-6	Social contract, universal ethical principles

Attachment and Social Relationships

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. Social relationships influence emotional and social development.

• Secure Attachment: Child feels safe and comforted by caregiver.

• Insecure Attachment: Child shows anxiety or avoidance.

Parenting Styles

Style	Characteristics	Outcomes
Authoritative	High warmth, high control	High self-esteem, social competence
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control	Low self-esteem, obedience
Permissive	High warmth, low control	Impulsivity, poor self-regulation
Uninvolved	Low warmth, low control	Attachment problems, poor outcomes

Adolescent Development

Adolescence is marked by physical maturation, identity formation, and increased independence.

• Puberty: Period of sexual maturation.

• Identity Formation: Developing a sense of self.

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Biological and Social Aspects of Gender

Gender identity is shaped by biological, psychological, and social factors.

• Sex: Biological classification as male or female.

• Gender: Socially constructed roles and behaviors.

• Gender Identity: Personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

Sexual Orientation and Diversity

Sexual orientation refers to patterns of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction.

• Heterosexual: Attraction to opposite sex.

• Homosexual: Attraction to same sex.

• Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.

• Asexual: Lack of sexual attraction.

Sexual Response and Dysfunction

Sexual response cycle includes excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Sexual dysfunctions can affect any phase.

• Sexual Dysfunction: Problems with sexual response or satisfaction.

• Paraphilic Disorders: Unusual sexual interests causing distress or harm.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

STIs are diseases transmitted through sexual contact. Prevention includes safe sex practices and education.

• HIV/AIDS: Virus affecting immune system; advances in treatment have improved outcomes.

Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology studies how people think, feel, and behave in social contexts.

• Social Influence: How others affect our behavior and attitudes.

• Group Dynamics: How groups affect individual behavior.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explains how people interpret the causes of behavior.

• Internal Attribution: Behavior due to personal factors.

• External Attribution: Behavior due to situational factors.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational factors.

Attitudes and Behavior

Attitudes are beliefs or feelings about people, objects, or ideas. They influence behavior and can be explicit or implicit.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes or beliefs.

• Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations influence outcomes.

Compliance and Obedience

Compliance is changing behavior in response to a request; obedience is following orders from authority.

• Milgram Study: Examined obedience to authority; found high levels of compliance even when actions conflicted with personal conscience.

• Factors Influencing Obedience: Authority presence, proximity, group support.

Conformity and Group Influence

Conformity is adjusting behavior to match group norms. Group influence can lead to social facilitation or social loafing.

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance in presence of others.

• Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in groups.

Social Influence Phenomena

Phenomenon	Social Context	Psychological Effect	Behavioral Effect
Social Facilitation	Group presence	Increased arousal	Improved performance on simple tasks
Social Loafing	Group work	Diffusion of responsibility	Decreased individual effort
Deindividuation	Large group, anonymity	Loss of self-awareness	Increased impulsive behavior

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is negative behavior. Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about groups.

• Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes affecting behavior.

• Stereotype Threat: Risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group.

• Scapegoating: Blaming others for personal problems.

Helping Behavior and Altruism

Altruism is helping others without personal gain. The bystander effect describes decreased likelihood of helping when others are present.

• Bystander Effect: Diffusion of responsibility in groups.

• Kitty Genovese Case: Famous example illustrating the bystander effect.

Summary Table: Parenting Styles

Parenting Style	Characteristics	Child Outcomes
Authoritative	High warmth, high control	High self-esteem, social competence
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control	Obedience, lower happiness
Permissive	High warmth, low control	Impulsivity, poor self-regulation
Uninvolved	Low warmth, low control	Attachment problems, poor outcomes

Additional info:

• Some content inferred for completeness, such as definitions and examples of key terms.

• Tables reconstructed from study guide prompts and standard psychology knowledge.