Developmental and Social Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Developmental Psychology

Overview of Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the human lifespan. It seeks to understand how people grow, develop, and adapt at different life stages.

• Physical development: Changes in the body, brain, and motor skills.

• Cognitive development: Changes in thinking, problem-solving, and information processing.

• Social development: Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality.

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

• Cross-sectional studies: Compare individuals of different ages at one point in time.

• Longitudinal studies: Follow the same individuals over a period of time.

• Sequential studies: Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches.

Major Issues in Development

• Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to development.

• Continuity vs. Stages: Whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.

• Stability vs. Change: Whether personality traits remain stable or change over time.

Stages of Prenatal Development

• Germinal stage: Conception to 2 weeks; zygote formation and implantation.

• Embryonic stage: 2 to 8 weeks; major organs and structures begin to form.

• Fetal stage: 8 weeks to birth; growth and maturation of organs.

Critical and Sensitive Periods

Certain periods in development when the presence or absence of specific experiences has a profound effect on later development. For example, language acquisition is most effective during early childhood.

Cognitive and Moral Development

• Schemas: Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage	Approximate Age	Key Features
Sensorimotor	Birth-2 years	Object permanence, sensory exploration
Preoperational	2-7 years	Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, language development
Concrete Operational	7-11 years	Logical thinking about concrete events, conservation
Formal Operational	12+ years	Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level	Stage	Description
Preconventional	1. Obedience/Punishment 2. Self-Interest	Morality based on consequences and rewards
Conventional	3. Conformity 4. Law and Order	Morality based on social rules and laws
Postconventional	5. Social Contract 6. Universal Ethics	Morality based on abstract principles

Attachment and Social Development

• Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

• Strange Situation: Mary Ainsworth's procedure to assess attachment styles (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, disorganized).

• Harlow's Monkeys: Demonstrated the importance of comfort and security in attachment.

Parenting Styles

Parenting Style	Characteristics	Outcomes
Authoritative	High warmth, high control	High self-esteem, social competence
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control	Low self-esteem, obedience
Permissive	High warmth, low control	Impulsivity, poor self-discipline
Neglectful	Low warmth, low control	Poor outcomes in all domains

Adolescent Development

• Puberty: Period of sexual maturation and capability of reproduction.

• Identity vs. Role Confusion: Erikson's stage for adolescence; developing a sense of self.

• Brain development: Prefrontal cortex matures, improving impulse control and decision-making.

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

The Nature of Gender

• Sex: Biological status as male or female, determined by chromosomes (XX or XY).

• Gender: Socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.

• Gender identity: One's sense of being male, female, or something else.

• Gender roles: Expected behaviors for males and females.

• Gender expression: How individuals present their gender to the world.

Transgender and Nonbinary Identities

• Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth.

• Nonbinary: Individuals who do not identify exclusively as male or female.

Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientation: Enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual).

• Kinsey Scale: Measures sexual orientation on a continuum.

Sexual Response and Dysfunction

• Sexual response cycle: Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.

• Sexual dysfunctions: Problems that impair sexual arousal or functioning (e.g., erectile disorder, female orgasmic disorder).

Paraphilic Disorders

• Paraphilic disorders: Involve atypical sexual interests that cause distress or harm (e.g., exhibitionism, voyeurism, pedophilia).

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

• STIs: Infections transmitted through sexual contact (e.g., HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea).

• Prevention: Safe sex practices, regular testing, education.

Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology examines how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It explores the influence of others on attitudes, beliefs, and actions.

Attribution Theory

• Attribution: The process of explaining the causes of behavior.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors in others' behavior.

• Self-serving bias: Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors.

Attitudes and Behavior

• Attitude: A belief or feeling that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way.

• Cognitive dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, leading to attitude change.

Conformity and Obedience

• Conformity: Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard (e.g., Asch's line study).

• Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure (e.g., Milgram's shock experiment).

Compliance and Persuasion

• Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a direct request.

• Persuasion: Efforts to change attitudes or behaviors through communication (e.g., central vs. peripheral route).

Group Processes

• Social facilitation: Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others.

• Social loafing: Tendency to exert less effort in a group.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in group situations.

• Group polarization: Tendency for group discussion to strengthen group members' prevailing opinions.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making.

Social Influence Table

Phenomenon	Social context	Psychological effect	Behavioral effect
Social facilitation	Being observed	Increased arousal	Improved performance on easy tasks, impaired on difficult tasks
Social loafing	Group setting	Decreased accountability	Less effort exerted
Deindividuation	Group setting, anonymity	Reduced self-awareness	Lowered self-restraint, impulsive behavior

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

• Prejudice: Unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group.

• Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group.

• Stereotype: Generalized belief about a group.

• Stereotype threat: Risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group, which can impair performance.

• Implicit bias: Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect understanding and actions.

Aggression and Prosocial Behavior

• Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm.

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Frustration increases the likelihood of aggression.

• Prosocial behavior: Actions intended to benefit others (e.g., helping, sharing).

• Bystander effect: Tendency for individuals to be less likely to help when others are present.

Altruism

• Altruism: Unselfish concern for the welfare of others.

• Factors influencing helping: Presence of others, perceived need, similarity, mood, and time pressure.

Reducing Prejudice and Conflict

• Contact hypothesis: Increased contact between groups can reduce prejudice under appropriate conditions.

• Superordinate goals: Shared goals that require cooperation can reduce intergroup conflict.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard academic sources in developmental and social psychology.