Developmental and Social Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Developmental Psychology

Physical Development: Prenatal Infancy

Physical development in infancy lays the foundation for later growth and cognitive abilities. Understanding critical periods and the impact of stimulation is essential for recognizing how early experiences shape development.

• Critical Periods: Specific windows during which certain experiences must occur for normal development to proceed.

• Stimulation: Adequate sensory and social stimulation is necessary for healthy brain and physical development.

• Reflexes: Infants are born with reflexes (e.g., rooting, sucking) that support survival and indicate neurological health.

• Example: Lack of stimulation during critical periods can result in developmental delays.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the progression of thinking, problem-solving, and information processing abilities from infancy through adulthood.

• Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:

  • Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through sensory input and motor actions; object permanence develops.

  • Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and language development.

  • Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation.

  • Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

• Assimilation vs. Accommodation: Assimilation involves integrating new information into existing schemas; accommodation is modifying schemas for new information.

• Example: A child learning that not all four-legged animals are dogs (accommodation).

Social and Emotional Development

Social and emotional development encompasses the formation of attachments, emotional regulation, and the development of social skills.

• Attachment: Emotional bond between infant and caregiver; secure attachment is linked to positive outcomes.

• Harlow's Studies: Demonstrated the importance of comfort and security in attachment using rhesus monkeys.

• Parenting Styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, each with distinct effects on child outcomes.

• Example: Securely attached children tend to be more socially competent.

Moral Development

Moral development involves the evolution of ethical reasoning and behavior, often studied through Kohlberg's stages.

• Kohlberg's Theory: Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels, each with two stages, describe the progression of moral reasoning.

• Example: A child obeys rules to avoid punishment (preconventional), while an adult may follow universal ethical principles (postconventional).

Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

Sex vs. Gender

Sex refers to biological attributes, while gender encompasses social and psychological roles and identity.

• Sex: Determined by chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.

• Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities.

• Gender Identity: Personal sense of one's own gender, which may or may not align with biological sex.

• Gender Dysphoria: Distress due to a mismatch between gender identity and assigned sex at birth.

• Example: A transgender individual may seek medical transition to align physical characteristics with gender identity.

Sexual Response and Orientation

Sexual response involves physiological and psychological processes, while sexual orientation refers to patterns of romantic or sexual attraction.

• Sexual Response Cycle: Four phases—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

• Sexual Orientation: Enduring pattern of attraction (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

• Example: The Kinsey Scale measures sexual orientation on a continuum.

Paraphilic Disorders and STIs

Paraphilic disorders involve atypical sexual interests causing distress or harm, while sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are diseases transmitted through sexual contact.

• Diagnosis: Paraphilic disorders are diagnosed based on distress, impairment, or harm to others.

• STIs: Common types include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and HIV/AIDS; prevention and treatment are critical public health concerns.

Social Psychology

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explores how people explain the causes of behavior, distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors in others' behavior.

• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors.

• Example: Blaming traffic for being late rather than one's own poor planning.

Attitudes and Behavior

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas, and can influence behavior, especially when they are strong or directly relevant.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, often leading to attitude change.

• Persuasion: The process of changing attitudes through communication; influenced by source, message, and audience characteristics.

Conformity and Obedience

Conformity is adjusting behavior to align with group norms, while obedience is following orders from authority figures.

• Asch's Conformity Experiments: Demonstrated the power of group pressure on individual judgments.

• Milgram's Obedience Studies: Showed that people are likely to follow authority even when it conflicts with personal conscience.

Group Influence and Decision Making

Groups can influence individual behavior, sometimes leading to phenomena like groupthink or polarization.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to impulsive actions.

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group, discrimination is negative behavior, and stereotypes are generalized beliefs.

• Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes affecting understanding and actions.

• Reducing Prejudice: Intergroup contact and cooperation can reduce bias.

Helping Behavior

Helping behavior, or prosocial behavior, is influenced by situational and individual factors.

• Bystander Effect: Individuals are less likely to help when others are present.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: The presence of others leads to a decreased sense of personal responsibility.

Additional Info

• These notes are based on a study guide and cover key concepts in developmental and social psychology, including major theories, research findings, and applications.

• Students should refer to their course readings and lectures for more detailed explanations and examples.