Developmental Concepts in Psychology: Growth, Development, and Major Theories

Ch: 22 Developmental Concepts

Concepts of Growth and Development

Understanding human development involves distinguishing between growth and development. These concepts are foundational in developmental psychology and inform how psychologists and health professionals assess and support individuals across the lifespan.

• Growth: Refers to an increase in body size or changes in body cell structure, function, and complexity.

• Development: An orderly pattern of changes in structure, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors resulting from maturation, experiences, and learning.

Principles of Growth and Development

Growth and development follow certain principles that help explain individual differences and common patterns.

• Orderly and sequential

• Continuous and complex

• Follow regular and predictable trends

• Are both differentiated (specialized) and integrated (combined)

• Occur at different stages and rates, and can be modified

• Pace is specific for each person

Factors Influencing Growth and Development

Multiple factors interact to influence an individual's growth and development.

• Genetics/heredity, genomics, epigenomics

• Prenatal, individual, and caregiver factors

• Environment and nutrition

• Social determinants of health

Genetics, Genomics, and Epigenetics in Development

Role of Genetics in Growth and Development

Genetic inheritance plays a crucial role in determining physical and some psychological characteristics.

• At conception, humans receive 23 pairs of chromosomes (one set from each parent).

• Genes carry information for cellular differentiation, growth, and function.

• Heredity: Transmission of genetic traits from one generation to another.

• Physical traits (e.g., height, eye color) and predisposition to certain diseases are inherited.

Human Genome Project (HGP) Accomplishments

• Sequenced all bases in human DNA

• Created gene location maps on chromosomes

• Developed linkage maps to track inherited traits

Genomics and Epigenetics

• Genomics: Study of the structure and interactions of all genes, including gene-environment interactions.

• Epigenetics: Study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence.

Example: Environmental factors such as nutrition or stress can cause epigenetic changes that affect development.

Theories of Human Development

Overview of Major Theories

Several theorists have proposed influential models to explain how humans develop across the lifespan.

• Freud: Psychoanalytic development

• Piaget: Cognitive development

• Erikson: Psychosocial development

• Havighurst: Developmental tasks

• Gould: Adult development phases

• Levinson: Life structure

• Kohlberg: Moral development

• Gilligan: Morality from a female perspective

• Fowler: Faith development

Freud's Theory of Psychoanalytic Development

Freud's theory emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences on development.

• Unconscious mind: Contains memories, motives, fantasies, and fears.

• Id: Source of instinctual drives and self-gratification.

• Ego: Mediates between the id and reality; the conscious self.

• Superego: The conscience; internalized societal rules and morals.

Freud's Stages of Development:

• Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)

• Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)

• Phallic Stage (3 to 7 years)

• Latency Stage (7 to 12 years)

• Genital Stage (12 to 20 years)

Example: The ego helps a child delay gratification, balancing desires with social expectations.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget described how children's thinking evolves in stages as they interact with their environment.

• Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 or 3 years): Learning through senses and actions.

• Preoperational Stage (2 or 3 to 6 or 7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism.

• Concrete Operational Stage (6 or 7 to 11 or 12 years): Logical thinking about concrete events.

• Formal Operational Stage (11 or 12 to 14 or 15 years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Example: Conservation tasks (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) are mastered in the concrete operational stage.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson expanded Freud's ideas, emphasizing social and cultural influences and proposing eight stages across the lifespan.

• Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis and developmental task.

• Successful resolution leads to healthy personality development.

Stage	Approximate Age	Crisis
1. Trust vs. Mistrust	Infancy	Developing trust in caregivers
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt	Toddler	Developing independence
3. Initiative vs. Guilt	Preschool	Initiating activities
4. Industry vs. Inferiority	School Age	Mastering skills
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion	Adolescence	Developing sense of self
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation	Young Adulthood	Forming close relationships
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation	Middle Adulthood	Contributing to society
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair	Later Adulthood	Reflecting on life

Example: Adolescents work to develop a stable identity, resolving the crisis of identity vs. role confusion.

Havighurst's Theory of Developmental Tasks

Havighurst identified specific tasks that individuals must accomplish at different life stages for healthy development.

• Infancy and Early Childhood

• Middle Childhood

• Adolescence: Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

• Young Adulthood

• Middle Adulthood

• Later Maturity

Example: Adolescents are expected to develop social responsibility and independence.

Gould's Theory of Adult Development

Gould studied adult development, focusing on transformation through specific beliefs and phases.

• Ages 18–22

• Ages 22–28

• Ages 29–34

• Ages 35–43

• Ages 43–50

• Ages 50 and older

Central theme: Transformation during adulthood.

Levinson's Theory of Life Structure

Levinson emphasized the evolution of an individual's life structure, shaped by self, social/cultural aspects, and roles.

• Self (values and motives)

• Social and cultural aspects (family, career, religion, ethnicity)

• Roles (e.g., spouse, parent, friend, student)

Major Phases in Adulthood
Novice Phase
Early Adult Transition
Entering the Adult World
Age-30 Transition
Settling Down
Midlife Transition
Entering Middle Adulthood

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops in stages, paralleling cognitive development.

• Preconventional Level: Morality based on consequences and obedience

• Conventional Level: Morality based on social approval and law/order

• Postconventional Level: Morality based on abstract principles and justice

Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development

Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's theory for its male bias and proposed a model emphasizing care and relationships, especially in females.

• Level 1—Preconventional: Selfishness

• Level 2—Conventional: Goodness

• Level 3—Postconventional: Nonviolence

Example: Women may prioritize care and relationships in moral decision-making.

Fowler's Theory of Faith Development

Fowler described stages of spiritual identity development, influenced by cognitive and moral development theories.

Stage	Description
Prestage	Undifferentiated faith
Stage 1	Intuitive–projective faith
Stage 2	Mythical–literal faith
Stage 3	Synthetic–conventional faith
Stage 4	Individuative–reflective faith (older adolescents/young adults become responsible for their own commitments, beliefs, and attitudes)
Stage 5	Conjunctive faith
Stage 6	Universalizing faith

Applying Principles of Growth and Development

Clinical and Practical Considerations

• Know the stages of cognitive, psychosocial, moral, and spiritual development.

• Maintain flexibility and respect individual uniqueness.

• Anticipate possible regression during stress or crisis.

• Recognize the influence of environment and culture.

• Within each stage, individuals may show behaviors from previous, current, or next stages.

• Family dynamics can influence individual development positively or negatively.

• Provide developmentally appropriate environments and experiences.

Example: A hospitalized child may temporarily regress to earlier behaviors (e.g., bedwetting) during stress.

Additional info: Developmental theories provide frameworks for understanding typical and atypical development, guiding interventions in education, healthcare, and counseling.