Developmental Psychology: Conception Through Young Adulthood

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Ch 23: Developmental Psychology: Conception Through Young Adulthood

Stages of Prenatal Development

Human development begins at conception and progresses through several distinct prenatal stages, each characterized by unique physiological changes and vulnerabilities.

Pre-embryonic Stage (Conception to 3rd Week): Characterized by the formation of three primary cell layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
Embryonic Stage (4th to 8th Week): All basic organs are established. This is the period of greatest vulnerability to teratogens (substances that cause congenital anomalies), such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs.
Fetal Stage (9th Week to Birth): Body organs and systems continue to grow and mature.

Example: Exposure to harmful substances during the embryonic stage can result in congenital anomalies due to rapid organ development.

Physical and Reflex Development in Neonates (Birth to 28 Days)

Neonates exhibit several innate reflexes and physiological characteristics that support survival and adaptation to the environment.

Reflexes: Include moro, stepping, grasp, hand-to-mouth, sucking, swallowing, blinking, sneezing, and yawning.
Temperature Regulation: Body temperature responds quickly to environmental changes.
Sensory Response: Neonates use their senses to respond to environmental stimuli.
Elimination: Stool and urine are eliminated regularly.
Behavioral States: Active crying and quiet alert states are common.

Health and Immunity in Neonates

Inherited Immunity: Maternal immunoglobulins cross the placenta, providing temporary immunity.
Breastfeeding: Recommended exclusively for the first 6 months to provide additional immune protection.
Health Risks: Premature or cesarean-delivered neonates are more vulnerable to respiratory distress syndrome and other complications.

Physiological and Psychosocial Development of Infants (1 Month to 1 Year)

Infancy is marked by rapid physical growth and foundational psychosocial development.

Physical Growth: Brain reaches half of adult size; body temperature stabilizes; motor abilities develop; eyes begin to focus; heart doubles in weight; birth weight triples by 1 year.
Psychosocial Development: Freud: Oral stage—immediate gratification of needs. Erikson: Trust vs. mistrust—develops trust in caregivers. Havighurst: Tasks include taking food, walking, and talking.

Example: An infant who receives consistent care develops a sense of trust, forming the basis for future relationships.

Attachment, Bonding, and Temperament in Infancy

Attachment: The emotional bond that develops over time between infant and caregiver.
Bonding: The initial process occurring shortly after birth, necessary for later attachment.
Temperament: Infants may be easy, slow to warm, or difficult, influencing caregiver interactions.
Health Concerns: Include colic, failure to thrive, accidental injuries, SIDS, and child maltreatment.

Role of the Nurse in Infancy

Health Promotion: Teaching family members and caregivers is the most essential role.
Safety and Nutrition: Guidance on safe environments and proper nutrition.
Immunizations: Administering and educating about vaccines.

Physiological and Cognitive Development of Toddlers (1 to 3 Years)

Toddlers experience rapid growth and increasing independence.

Physical Development: Rapid brain growth, increased bone length, muscle growth, improved fine and gross motor skills, and bladder control.
Cognitive Development: Final stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor period; object permanence; simple commands; emerging language skills.

Psychosocial Development of Toddlers

Freud: Anal stage—focus on toilet training.
Erikson: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt—developing independence.
Havighurst: Tasks include controlling elimination, learning language, and distinguishing right from wrong.
Common Behaviors: Negativism, regression, separation anxiety.

Role of the Nurse: Health of the Toddler

Accident Prevention: Highest risk for injury at this stage.
Health Promotion: Teaching caregivers about safety, nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Encouraging Independence: Support autonomy while setting firm limits.

Development of the Preschooler (3 to 6 Years)

Physical Development: Head nears adult size by age 6; body becomes leaner and more coordinated; full set of deciduous teeth; average weight 45 lb.
Cognitive Development: Decreasing egocentrism; play reflects real-life events; curiosity and improved reasoning; elaborate language development.

Psychosocial and Moral Development of Preschoolers

Freud: Phallic stage—focus on genitals.
Erikson: Initiative vs. guilt—developing conscience.
Havighurst: Learning sex differences, modesty, language, and distinguishing right from wrong.
Kohlberg: Preconventional moral reasoning—behavior motivated by desire to avoid punishment or gain rewards.

Example: A preschooler may follow rules primarily to avoid being punished rather than from an internalized sense of right and wrong.

Role of the Nurse: Health of the Preschooler

Obesity Prevention: Identifying at-risk children and teaching families about healthy habits.
Communication: Explaining procedures in child-friendly language and encouraging emotional expression.
Family Involvement: Encouraging caregivers to participate actively in care.

Development of the School-Aged Child (6 to 12 Years)

Physical Development: Brain reaches 90-95% of adult size; nervous system matures; motor skills advance; permanent teeth (except 2nd and 3rd molars) present by age 12; steady growth in height and weight.
Cognitive Development: Piaget’s concrete operational stage—logical thinking, inductive reasoning, classification, and understanding of others’ feelings.

Psychosocial and Moral Development of School-Aged Children

Freud: Latency stage—strong identification with same-sex peers.
Erikson: Industry vs. inferiority—focus on learning skills and developing self-identity.
Havighurst: Tasks include learning games, social roles, academic skills, independence, and morality.
Kohlberg: Conventional moral development—internalizing societal rules.
Fowler: Spiritual development may begin.

Health Issues for School-Aged Children

Obesity, accidents, communicable diseases, ADHD, seizure disorders, hypertension, type 1 diabetes, scoliosis, learning disabilities, chronic illnesses, enuresis.

Role of the Nurse: Health of School-Aged Children

Education: Teaching individuals and families about health, safety, and development.
Obesity Prevention: Encouraging physical activity and healthy eating.
Addressing Violence: Recognizing and intervening in cases of bullying or school violence.
Empowerment: Allowing children some control during hospitalization.

Physiological and Cognitive Development of Adolescents (12 to 18 Years)

Physical Development: Rapid growth of extremities and muscle mass; puberty (primary and secondary sexual characteristics); active sweat glands; attainment of adult size.
Stages of Puberty:
- Prepubescence: Secondary sex characteristics begin; reproductive organs not yet functional; downy pubic hair appears.
- Pubescence: Continued development; ova and sperm produced.
- Postpubescence: Full reproductive maturity.
Cognitive Development: Piaget’s formal operations—deductive, reflective, and hypothetical reasoning; abstract thinking; long-term goal setting; egocentrism and imaginary audiences.

Psychosocial and Moral Development of Adolescents and Young Adults

Freud: Genital stage—full sexual function.
Erikson: Identity vs. role confusion—stabilizing self-concept; peer influence is paramount.
Havighurst: Developing social roles, values, and independence.
Levinson: Early adult transition—career and relationship choices.
Gould: Establishing autonomy from family.
Kohlberg: Conventional to postconventional moral reasoning—concern for social order, possibly developing personal ethical principles.
Fowler: Spiritual development—individuating-reflective period.

Special Considerations and Health Issues for Adolescents and Young Adults

Choosing a career, establishing a family, moral and spiritual development.
Common health issues: injuries, substance use/abuse, suicide, pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, nutritional problems, developmental and situational stressors.
Stressors: sexual orientation, peer pressure, gender identity, family and financial pressures, desire for belonging, divorce, and separation.

Role of the Nurse: Health of Adolescents and Young Adults

Assessment: Monitoring reproductive health and development.
Family Relationships: Facilitating healthy dynamics.
Support: Providing educational and recreational activities during illness or hospitalization to reduce isolation.

Summary Table: Stages of Development and Key Features

Stage	Age Range	Physical Development	Cognitive Development	Psychosocial Development
Neonate	Birth to 28 days	Reflexes, temperature regulation	Basic sensory response	Bonding, initial attachment
Infant	1 month to 1 year	Rapid growth, motor skills	Sensorimotor (Piaget)	Trust vs. mistrust (Erikson)
Toddler	1 to 3 years	Motor skills, bladder control	Object permanence, language	Autonomy vs. shame (Erikson)
Preschooler	3 to 6 years	Coordination, full teeth	Preoperational (Piaget)	Initiative vs. guilt (Erikson)
School-Aged	6 to 12 years	Steady growth, permanent teeth	Concrete operational (Piaget)	Industry vs. inferiority (Erikson)
Adolescent	12 to 18 years	Puberty, adult size	Formal operations (Piaget)	Identity vs. role confusion (Erikson)
Young Adult	18 to 35 years	Full maturity	Advanced reasoning, creativity	Intimacy vs. isolation (Erikson)

Key Theories Referenced

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation.
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Preconventional, conventional, postconventional.
Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks: Age-specific tasks for successful development.
Fowler’s Spiritual Development: Stages of faith and spiritual growth.
Levinson and Gould: Adult transitions and establishment of independence.

Sample Equation: Growth Rate Calculation

To calculate the average annual weight gain for a school-aged child:

Additional info: Some content, such as detailed descriptions of certain reflexes or specific developmental milestones, was inferred or expanded for academic completeness.