Developmental Psychology: Human Development Study Guide

Human Development

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how humans change over time, focusing on both mental and physical changes from birth through old age. Psychologists analyze these changes in terms of stages and discuss how individuals develop in various domains.

• Mental and physical changes: Occur from birth until old age.

• Stages of development: Psychologists classify changes into distinct stages.

Nature vs. Nurture Controversy

The nature-nurture debate centers on the relative importance of genetics (nature) versus environment (nurture) in shaping human behavior and development. Classic twin studies have been used to explore this interaction.

• Identical twins: Studies compare twins raised together and apart to assess genetic and environmental influences.

• Adoption studies: Examine children separated from biological parents to determine the impact of genetics versus upbringing.

Example: Twins separated at birth and raised in different environments may have similar intelligence due to genetics, but differences in achievement can be attributed to environment.

Is Intelligence a Result of Nature or Nurture?

Intelligence is influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental factors. While genetics set certain abilities, human behavior is shaped by experience.

• Genetic predisposition: Sets potential for intelligence.

• Environmental influence: Shapes how potential is realized.

Three Identical Strangers Documentary

This documentary explores the lives of triplets separated at birth and raised in different families, highlighting the roles of nature and nurture.

• Triplets: Separated and adopted by different families.

• Mother not financially positioned to care for all: Led to separation.

• Facility responsible: Psychiatrist involved, ignored environmental factors.

• Outcomes: Each boy had different experiences based on family environment.

Prenatal Development

Stages Before Birth

Prenatal development includes several stages from conception to birth, each with distinct characteristics.

• Zygote: Fertilized egg, first stage.

• Embryo: Organism in first 8 weeks after conception.

• Fetus: Last stage, developed during embryonic and fetal periods.

• Placenta: Organ that exchanges waste and nutrients between mother and fetus.

Teratogens

Teratogens are harmful substances that can negatively affect prenatal development.

• Alcohol and drugs: Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome and other issues.

• Smoking: Harmful to fetal development.

Infancy and Attachment

Attachment Theory

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between infants and caregivers. Mary Ainsworth's research identified different attachment styles through laboratory settings.

• Secure attachment: Child feels safe and comforted by caregiver.

• Anxious ambivalent attachment: Child is agitated and upset when caregiver leaves, difficult to comfort.

• Avoidant attachment: Child shows little emotional response to caregiver's absence or return.

Cognitive Development

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by different ways of thinking.

• Schemes: Mental structures guiding children's thought.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemes.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemes to fit new information.

Stages of Cognitive Development

• SENSORIMOTOR (Birth to age 2): Children learn through sensory experiences and motor actions. Object permanence develops.

• PREOPERATIONAL (Ages 2 to 7): Use of language and symbolic thinking, egocentrism, animistic thinking.

• CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (Ages 7 to 11): Logical thought about concrete objects, understanding conservation.

• FORMAL OPERATIONAL (Age 12 and on): Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Object Permanence

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

• Develops around 6 months of age.

Conservation

Conservation is the understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

• Developed during concrete operational stage.

Social and Emotional Development

Temperament

Temperament refers to an individual's characteristic manner of behavior or reaction, observable from early childhood.

• Easygoing: Sociable, adaptable children.

• Difficult: Moody, irritable children.

Socialization

Socialization is the lifelong process of learning behaviors, values, standards, and skills necessary to function in society.

• Influences include family, school, clubs, and sports.

• Leisure activities help develop social skills.

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles influence children's development and behavior. Four main styles are identified:

• Authoritarian: Strict discipline, little warmth.

• Authoritative: Balance of discipline and warmth, most effective.

• Permissive: Few rules, child makes decisions.

• Uninvolved: Little engagement or supervision.

Historical Trends in Parenting

Emphasis in Different Time Periods

Parenting priorities have shifted over decades, reflecting societal changes.

Time Period	Emphasis
Late 1970s	Independence, questioning authority
1989	Free thinking
1957	Frankness, honesty
2011	Economic achievement, academic success
2023	Mental health, wellbeing, job satisfaction

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a central challenge.

Age	Stage	Principal Challenge
0-1.5 yrs	Trust vs. Mistrust	Consistency in care leads to trust
1.5-3 yrs	Autonomy vs. Self Doubt	Freedom to explore leads to autonomy
3-6 yrs	Initiative vs. Guilt	Encouragement to act leads to initiative
6 yrs to puberty	Confidence vs. Inferiority	Success in school leads to confidence
Adolescence	Identity vs. Role Confusion	Exploring identity leads to self-understanding

Additional info:

• Piaget's stages continue into adulthood with further cognitive development.

• Attachment styles can influence later relationships and emotional health.

• Parenting styles are linked to outcomes such as self-esteem, academic achievement, and social competence.