Developmental Psychology: Key Concepts and Study Guide

Chapter 1: Foundations of Child Development

Underlying Themes and Theoretical Frameworks

Child development is guided by several core themes and theoretical perspectives that help explain how children grow and change over time.

• Four Underlying Themes: These typically include nature vs. nurture, continuity vs. discontinuity, universality vs. diversity, and the role of context.

• Main Theories: Major theories discussed in class may include Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, Erikson), Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner), Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget), Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky), and Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner).

• Comparing Approaches: Alternative approaches differ in their emphasis on biological, psychological, and social factors.

• Diversity in Development: Understanding how frameworks can be adapted to harmonize Western and First Nations perspectives is crucial for inclusive developmental psychology.

• Bronfenbrenner’s Framework: The five contexts or systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

Example: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model helps categorize influences on a child, such as family (microsystem), school policies (exosystem), and cultural values (macrosystem).

Chapter 2: Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

Research Designs and Methods

Developmental psychologists use a variety of research methods to study changes across the lifespan.

• Main Features of Research Designs: Includes correlational, experimental, field experiments, and naturalistic observation.

• Strengths and Weaknesses: Experimental designs allow for causal inference but may lack ecological validity; correlational designs identify relationships but not causality.

• Validity and Variables: Types of validity include internal, external, construct, and ecological validity. Variables can be independent, dependent, or confounding.

• Cohort Effects: Differences among groups due to the time period in which they were born, not age.

• Ethical Responsibilities: Researchers must uphold principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm.

• Dissemination of Findings: Best practices include peer-reviewed publication, presentations, and open access data sharing.

Example: A longitudinal study tracks the same group of children over several years to observe developmental changes.

Chapter 3: Genetics, Environment, and Prenatal Development

Genetic Principles and Inheritance

Genetics and environment interact to shape development from conception onward.

• Meiosis vs. Mitosis: Meiosis produces gametes (sperm and egg) with half the genetic material; mitosis produces identical cells for growth and repair.

• Monozygotic vs. Dizygotic Twins: Monozygotic twins are genetically identical; dizygotic twins share about 50% of their genes.

• Genotype and Phenotype: Genotype is the genetic makeup; phenotype is the observable traits.

• Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: Homozygous means two identical alleles; heterozygous means two different alleles.

• Dominant and Recessive Traits: Dominant traits are expressed when present; recessive traits require two copies to be expressed.

• Behavioral Genetics: Studies the influence of genes and environment on behavior.

• Gene-Environment Correlation: Refers to how genetic predispositions can influence the environments individuals experience.

• Epigenetics: The study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression without changing DNA sequence.

• Inherited Allele, Chromosome, and Sex-Chromosome Disorders: Includes conditions such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Turner syndrome (XO), and Klinefelter syndrome (XXY).

Example: A child may inherit a genetic predisposition for high intelligence, but environmental factors such as education and nutrition also play a role.

Chapter 4: Prenatal Development and Birth

Stages and Influences on Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is divided into distinct stages, each with unique physical and behavioral changes.

• Major Stages: Germinal (0-2 weeks), Embryonic (3-8 weeks), and Fetal (9 weeks to birth).

• Layers of Embryo: Ectoderm (nervous system, skin), mesoderm (muscles, bones), endoderm (internal organs).

• Directions of Development: Cephalocaudal (head to tail) and proximodistal (center to extremities).

• Viability: The age at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, typically around 24 weeks.

• Teratogens: Agents such as drugs, alcohol, and infections that can cause birth defects.

• Thalidomide: A drug that caused limb defects when taken during pregnancy; effects depend on timing of exposure.

• Maternal Factors: Nutrition, stress, and health can affect prenatal development.

• Stages of Childbirth: Dilation of cervix, delivery of baby, delivery of placenta.

• Apgar Scale: Assesses newborn health on five criteria: appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration.

• Neonatal Sleep: REM and non-REM sleep patterns; SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) prevention includes safe sleep practices.

• Reflexes and Abilities: Newborns have reflexes such as rooting, sucking, and grasping.

• NBAS (Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale): Measures newborn behavior and neurological development.

Example: Exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, affecting cognitive and physical development.

Summary Table: Key Concepts in Developmental Psychology

Concept	Definition	Example/Application
Nature vs. Nurture	Debate over the relative influence of genetics and environment	Intelligence influenced by both genes and schooling
Experimental Design	Research method involving manipulation of variables	Testing effects of a new teaching method on learning
Gene-Environment Correlation	Genetic predispositions influence environmental experiences	Active child seeks stimulating environments
Teratogen	Agent causing birth defects	Alcohol, thalidomide
Apgar Scale	Assessment of newborn health	Score of 7-10 indicates healthy baby

Additional info:

• Some definitions and examples have been inferred based on standard developmental psychology curricula.

• Equations are not directly referenced in the material, but relevant genetic formulas include:

$P = G + E$ Where P is phenotype, G is genotype, and E is environment.

$\text{Heritability} = \frac{V_G}{V_P}$ Where $V_G$ is genetic variance and $V_P$ is phenotypic variance.