Developmental Psychology: Study Guide for Midterm Exam

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Nature and Nurture

Developmental psychology examines how genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors influence human growth and behavior across the lifespan.

• Nature: Refers to genetic inheritance and biological factors.

• Nurture: Involves environmental influences such as upbringing, culture, and experiences.

• Example: Intelligence is shaped by both inherited genes and educational opportunities.

Developmental Influences

Multiple factors affect development, including biological, psychological, and social influences.

• Biological: Genetics, brain development, hormones.

• Psychological: Cognition, emotions, personality.

• Social: Family, peers, culture.

Critical vs. Sensitive Periods

These periods refer to optimal times for certain developmental processes.

• Critical Period: A specific time when certain experiences must occur for normal development (e.g., language acquisition in early childhood).

• Sensitive Period: A time when a person is particularly responsive to certain experiences, but development can still occur later, though less efficiently.

Lifespan Development Approaches

Lifespan approaches emphasize that development is a lifelong process, involving growth and change at every age.

• Multidimensional: Involves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains.

• Multidirectional: Gains and losses occur throughout life.

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Change

Describes how development occurs over time.

• Continuous Change: Gradual, cumulative development (e.g., vocabulary growth).

• Discontinuous Change: Distinct stages with qualitative differences (e.g., Piaget's stages of cognitive development).

Types of Learning & Conditioning

Learning theories explain how behavior changes due to experience.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning by association (Pavlov's dogs).

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (Skinner's box).

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (Bandura's Bobo doll experiment).

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Freud's theory emphasizes unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

• Psychosexual Stages: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.

• Id, Ego, Superego: Components of personality.

Development Theories/Perspectives

Major perspectives include:

• Psychoanalytic (Freud, Erikson)

• Behavioral (Watson, Skinner)

• Cognitive (Piaget, Vygotsky)

• Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers)

• Ecological (Bronfenbrenner)

Research Methods & Designs

Developmental research uses various methods to study change over time.

• Longitudinal: Follows the same individuals over time.

• Cross-sectional: Compares individuals of different ages at one point in time.

• Sequential: Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.

Brain Scanning Methods

Techniques to study brain structure and function:

• EEG: Measures electrical activity.

• MRI: Provides detailed images of brain anatomy.

• fMRI: Shows brain activity by measuring blood flow.

Start of Life: Genetics and Prenatal Development

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype is an individual's genetic makeup, while phenotype is the observable traits.

• Genotype: The set of genes inherited from parents.

• Phenotype: The physical and behavioral characteristics expressed.

• Example: A person may have a genotype for brown eyes but a phenotype of blue eyes if the brown-eye gene is recessive.

Genetic Trait Probabilities

Probability of inheriting traits can be predicted using Punnett squares.

• Dominant Trait: Expressed if at least one dominant allele is present.

• Recessive Trait: Expressed only if both alleles are recessive.

Chromosomes/Cell-Division

Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Cell division occurs via mitosis (body cells) and meiosis (sex cells).

• Mitosis: Produces identical cells for growth and repair.

• Meiosis: Produces gametes (sperm and egg) with half the number of chromosomes.

Monozygotic/Dizygotic Twins

Twins can be identical (monozygotic) or fraternal (dizygotic).

• Monozygotic: One zygote splits; genetically identical.

• Dizygotic: Two separate eggs fertilized; genetically similar as siblings.

Dominant and Recessive Traits

Traits are determined by dominant and recessive alleles.

• Dominant: Expressed in the phenotype if present.

• Recessive: Only expressed if both alleles are recessive.

Homozygous vs. Heterozygous

Describes the combination of alleles for a trait.

• Homozygous: Two identical alleles (e.g., AA or aa).

• Heterozygous: Two different alleles (e.g., Aa).

Stages of Prenatal Development

Prenatal development occurs in three main stages:

• Germinal: Conception to 2 weeks; zygote formation and implantation.

• Embryonic: 2 to 8 weeks; major organs and structures develop.

• Fetal: 8 weeks to birth; growth and maturation of systems.

Structural Layers of Embryos

Three primary germ layers form during embryonic development:

• Ectoderm: Becomes skin and nervous system.

• Mesoderm: Becomes muscles, bones, and circulatory system.

• Endoderm: Becomes digestive and respiratory systems.

The APGAR Scale

The APGAR scale assesses newborn health immediately after birth.

Component	Description
Appearance	Skin color
Pulse	Heart rate
Grimace	Reflex response
Activity	Muscle tone
Respiration	Breathing effort

Each is scored 0-2; total score ranges from 0-10.

Infancy

Components of Neurons

Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system.

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus.

• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.

• Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.

• Synapse: Gap between neurons where communication occurs.

Infant Brain Development

Rapid brain growth occurs in infancy, including synaptogenesis and myelination.

• Synaptogenesis: Formation of new synapses.

• Myelination: Development of the myelin sheath for faster signal transmission.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Piaget's theory describes how children's thinking evolves in stages.

• Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops.

Language Development Concepts

Infants progress from cooing and babbling to first words.

• Babbling: Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds.

• Holophrase: Single word expressing a complete idea.

• Telegraphic Speech: Two-word combinations (e.g., "want cookie").

Information (Memory) Processing

Infants develop basic memory abilities, such as recognition and recall.

• Recognition: Identifying previously encountered information.

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.

Temperament & Attachment Styles

Temperament refers to individual differences in emotional reactivity; attachment describes the bond with caregivers.

• Attachment Styles: Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized.

• Example: Securely attached infants seek comfort from caregivers when distressed.

Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

Erikson's first stage: Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1 year).

• Trust: Develops when caregivers are responsive and consistent.

• Mistrust: Develops when care is inconsistent or neglectful.

The Preschool Years

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children use symbols and language but lack logical reasoning.

• Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing perspectives other than their own.

• Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation.

Cognitive Development (Vygotsky)

Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Range between what a child can do alone and with help.

• Scaffolding: Support provided by adults or peers to help a child learn.

Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

Erikson's second and third stages:

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Developing a sense of independence.

• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Asserting power and control through directing play and social interactions.

Gender Development Concepts

Children learn gender roles through observation, reinforcement, and socialization.

• Gender Identity: Awareness of being male or female.

• Gender Constancy: Understanding that gender remains the same over time.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A developmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

• Symptoms: Delayed language, limited eye contact, restricted interests.

Lateralization of the Brain

Refers to the specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

• Left Hemisphere: Language, logic, analytical thinking.

• Right Hemisphere: Spatial abilities, creativity, holistic thought.

Categories of Play

Type of Play	Description
Solitary	Playing alone
Parallel	Playing near others but not interacting
Associative	Interacting but not organized
Cooperative	Playing together with a common goal

Parenting Styles

Style	Description
Authoritative	High warmth, high control
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control
Permissive	High warmth, low control
Uninvolved	Low warmth, low control

Types of Aggression

• Instrumental Aggression: Used to achieve a goal.

• Hostile Aggression: Intended to harm another person.

Middle Childhood

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

• Symptoms: Difficulty sustaining attention, fidgeting, interrupting others.

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Kohlberg's theory describes stages of moral reasoning.

• Preconventional: Obedience and self-interest.

• Conventional: Conformity and law/order.

• Postconventional: Social contract and universal principles.

Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

Erikson's fourth stage: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years).

• Industry: Developing competence and skills.

• Inferiority: Feeling inadequate compared to peers.

Stanford-Binet & Wechsler IQ Tests

Standardized tests used to measure intelligence.

• Stanford-Binet: Measures general intelligence and cognitive abilities.

• Wechsler Scales: Separate tests for children (WISC) and adults (WAIS).

Special Populations (Intelligence)

Refers to groups with exceptional intellectual abilities or disabilities.

• Gifted: High intelligence or talent.

• Intellectual Disability: Below-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children develop logical thinking about concrete events.

• Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

• Classification: Ability to group objects by shared features.

Definition of Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

• Multiple Intelligences: Theory by Howard Gardner proposing different types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial).