Developmental, Social, and Gender Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Chapter 7: Developing Through the Lifespan

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how people change and grow throughout their lives, from conception to death. It examines physical, cognitive, and social development across different stages.

• Definition: The scientific study of age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and personality.

• Methods: Developmental psychologists use longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs to study changes over time.

• Key Questions: What types of studies are used? Why are they important?

• Nature vs. Nurture Debate: Examines the influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on development.

Prenatal Development

Prenatal development refers to the process of growth and change that occurs in the womb, from conception to birth.

• Stages: Germinal (0-2 weeks), Embryonic (2-8 weeks), Fetal (8 weeks-birth).

• Critical Periods: Times during which certain environmental influences can have a profound impact on development.

• Teratogens: Substances that can cause harm to the developing fetus (e.g., alcohol, drugs).

• Example: Exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can result in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by different abilities.

• Schema: Mental frameworks for organizing information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemas to fit new information.

• Stages:

  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Experiencing the world through senses and actions.

  2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Representing things with words and images; egocentrism.

  3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events.

  4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract reasoning.

Social and Emotional Development

Social and emotional development involves changes in relationships, emotions, and personality across the lifespan.

• Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver. Mary Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" identified secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment styles.

• Stranger Anxiety: Fear of unfamiliar people, typically emerging around 8 months.

• Self-Concept: Understanding of oneself as a separate entity.

• Parenting Styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.

Adolescence

Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, marked by physical, cognitive, and social changes.

• Identity Formation: Erikson's stage of "Identity vs. Role Confusion" (ages 12-18).

• Peer Relationships: Increasing importance of friendships and peer groups.

• Parent-Child Relationships: Shifts in attachment and independence.

Moral Development

Moral development refers to the growth of an individual's understanding of right and wrong, justice, and ethical behavior.

• Kohlberg's Theory: Three levels—preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

• Erikson's Theory: Social and emotional development across eight stages.

Chapter 8: Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

The Nature of Gender

Gender refers to the social, cultural, and psychological characteristics associated with being male or female.

• Key Terms: Biological sex, gender identity, gender role, gender schema, transgender, cisgender, androgyny.

• Gender Schema Theory: Children learn about gender roles from their culture.

• Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth.

• Gender Expression: How individuals present their gender through behavior, clothing, etc.

Treatment of Gender Dysphoria and Health Considerations for LGBTQ+

Gender dysphoria involves distress due to a mismatch between gender identity and assigned sex at birth.

• Medical Transition: May include hormone therapy and surgery.

• Ethical Issues: Informed consent, access to care, and social support.

Sexual Development

Sexual development encompasses the emergence of sexual feelings, behaviors, and identity.

• Sexual Response Cycle: Four phases—excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.

• Sexual Dysfunctions: Disorders that interfere with sexual response or pleasure.

• Paraphilic Disorders: Unusual sexual interests that may cause distress or harm.

• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs): Diseases transmitted through sexual contact.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to an individual's pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others.

• Types: Heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual, etc.

• Influences: Biological, psychological, and social factors.

Sexual Harassment and Aggression

Sexual harassment involves unwanted sexual advances or conduct. Sexual aggression refers to behaviors intended to harm or coerce others sexually.

• Prevention: Education, policy enforcement, and support for victims.

Chapter 11: Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts.

• Key Concepts: Attitudes, attribution, conformity, obedience, group dynamics, prejudice, discrimination.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explains how people infer the causes of behavior.

• Internal (Dispositional) Attribution: Assigning cause to personal traits.

• External (Situational) Attribution: Assigning cause to environmental factors.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational ones.

Attitudes and Persuasion

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas. Persuasion involves changing attitudes through communication.

• Components: Cognitive, affective, behavioral.

• Persuasion Techniques: Foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face.

Conformity and Obedience

Conformity is adjusting behavior to match group norms; obedience is following orders from authority.

• Asch's Conformity Experiments: Demonstrated the power of group pressure.

• Milgram's Obedience Study: Showed how people obey authority even against their morals.

Group Influence

Groups can affect individual behavior through processes like groupthink, social facilitation, and deindividuation.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance in the presence of others.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is negative behavior; stereotypes are generalized beliefs.

• Implicit vs. Explicit Bias: Unconscious vs. conscious attitudes.

• Social Roots: In-group/out-group dynamics, scapegoating.

Aggression and Helping Behavior

Aggression is behavior intended to harm; helping behavior is prosocial action.

• Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Frustration leads to aggression.

• Bystander Effect: People are less likely to help when others are present.

• Kitty Genovese Case: Famous example of the bystander effect.

Key Table: Parenting Styles

Parenting Style	Description	Child Outcomes
Authoritative	High warmth, high control	High self-esteem, social competence
Authoritarian	Low warmth, high control	Low self-esteem, obedience
Permissive	High warmth, low control	Impulsivity, poor self-regulation
Uninvolved	Low warmth, low control	Attachment problems, poor outcomes

Key Equation: Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg's stages are not expressed as equations, but the progression can be summarized:

• Preconventional: Obedience and punishment, self-interest

• Conventional: Conformity, law and order

• Postconventional: Social contract, universal ethical principles

Additional info:

• Some definitions and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.

• Table on parenting styles inferred from standard developmental psychology literature.