Developmental, Social, and Gender Psychology: Study Guide Notes

Chapter 7: Developing Through the Lifespan

Developmental Psychology Overview

Developmental psychology studies how people change and grow throughout their lives, focusing on physical, cognitive, and social development.

• Developmental psychologists investigate phenomena such as maturation, learning, and socialization.

• They use various methods to study changes across the lifespan, including longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.

• Maturation refers to biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.

Prenatal Development

Prenatal development encompasses the stages before birth, including the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.

• Germinal stage: First two weeks after conception; rapid cell division.

• Embryonic stage: Weeks 3-8; major organs and structures begin to form.

• Fetal stage: Week 9 to birth; growth and maturation of tissues and organs.

• Environmental factors, such as teratogens, can impact development during these stages.

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory describes how children’s thinking evolves in stages.

• Schema: A mental framework for organizing information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemas to fit new information.

• Typical day: Refers to the routine activities and learning experiences of children.

Attachment and Social Development

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between child and caregiver, influencing social and emotional development.

• Attachment styles: Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent.

• Stranger anxiety: Distress when exposed to unfamiliar people, typically emerges around 8 months.

• Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: Assesses attachment by observing child’s reactions to separations and reunions with caregiver.

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles affect children’s social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes.

• Authoritative: High warmth, high control; associated with positive outcomes.

• Authoritarian: Low warmth, high control; may lead to obedience but lower happiness.

• Permissive: High warmth, low control; may result in impulsivity.

• Neglectful: Low warmth, low control; associated with poor outcomes.

Adolescence

Adolescence is marked by physical, cognitive, and social changes, including identity formation and peer relationships.

• Erikson’s Theory: Identity vs. role confusion is the central crisis of adolescence.

• Relationships with peers and parents shift during this stage.

Moral Development

Kohlberg’s theory describes stages of moral reasoning.

• Preconventional: Based on consequences.

• Conventional: Based on social rules.

• Postconventional: Based on abstract principles.

Chapter 8: Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

The Nature of Gender

Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women.

• Sex: Biological classification as male or female.

• Gender identity: One’s personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

• Gender roles: Societal expectations for behavior based on gender.

• Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth.

• Gender schema theory: Proposes that children learn about gender roles from their culture.

Treatment of Gender Dysphoria and Health Considerations for LGBTQ+

Gender dysphoria involves distress due to a mismatch between gender identity and assigned sex.

• Treatment may include psychological support and medical interventions.

• Ethical issues include informed consent and access to care.

Sexual Development and Dysfunction

Sexual development includes physical maturation and the emergence of sexual orientation and identity.

• Sexual response cycle: Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.

• Sexual dysfunctions: Disorders that interfere with sexual response or satisfaction.

• Examples: Erectile disorder, female orgasmic disorder.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

STIs are infections transmitted through sexual contact, affecting physical and psychological health.

• Common STIs: HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea.

• Prevention includes safe sex practices and education.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to patterns of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction.

• Includes heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and other orientations.

• Research explores biological, psychological, and social influences.

Sexual Aggression and Harassment

Sexual aggression includes unwanted sexual advances or coercion, with significant psychological and social consequences.

• Prevention involves education, policy, and support for victims.

Chapter 11: Social Psychology

Social Psychology Overview

Social psychology studies how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

• Examines attitudes, group behavior, prejudice, and aggression.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explains how people infer the causes of behavior.

• Internal (dispositional) attribution: Attributing behavior to personal traits.

• External (situational) attribution: Attributing behavior to environmental factors.

• Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors in others.

Attitudes and Persuasion

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas, and can influence behavior.

• Persuasion involves changing attitudes through communication.

• Techniques: Foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face.

Conformity and Obedience

Conformity is adjusting behavior to match group norms; obedience is following authority.

• Milgram’s obedience study: Demonstrated the power of authority in influencing behavior.

• Asch’s conformity experiments: Showed the influence of group pressure.

Group Influence

Groups can affect individual behavior through phenomena such as groupthink and social facilitation.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

• Social facilitation: Improved performance in the presence of others.

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is negative behavior; stereotypes are generalized beliefs.

• Implicit bias can influence behavior unconsciously.

• Research includes the "black doll/white doll" study on racial attitudes.

Aggression and Helping Behavior

Aggression is behavior intended to harm; helping behavior is prosocial action.

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Frustration increases likelihood of aggression.

• Bystander effect: People are less likely to help when others are present.

• Kitty Genovese case is a classic example.

Additional info:

• Some content inferred from standard psychology curricula to provide context and completeness.

• Key terms and theories expanded for clarity and exam preparation.