Emotions, Attachment, and Social Relationships: Attachment Theory, Temperament, and Parenting Styles

Emotions, Attachment, and Social Relationships

Introduction

This chapter explores the foundational concepts of attachment, temperament, and parenting styles, which are central to understanding social and emotional development in infancy and beyond. The material covers classic research, theoretical models, and the implications of early relationships for later life outcomes.

Attachment

What is Attachment?

• Attachment is a positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual, typically a caregiver.

• It is considered the most important aspect of infant social development.

Understanding Attachment: Animal and Human Research

• Early animal research (e.g., Lorenz's imprinting in goslings, Harlow's studies with monkeys) suggests attachment is based on biologically determined factors.

• Harlow's research demonstrated that infant monkeys preferred a soft, comforting "mother" over a wire "mother" that provided food, highlighting the importance of contact comfort.

• Early human research (Bowlby) suggests attachment is based on the need for safety and security. Attachment provides a "home base" through a unique relationship with the individual who best provides safety. As children become more independent, they explore further from their secure base.

Attachment Theory

• Babies display behaviors (sucking, smiling, cooing, crying) that ensure adults will love them and meet their needs.

• Adults are hormonally prepared for caregiving, with oxytocin playing a key role in bonding.

• Infants develop internal working models—cognitive representations of themselves and others—which guide their expectations and behaviors in relationships.

• Securely attached infants develop models that they are lovable; insecurely attached infants develop models that they are difficult to love.

Measuring Attachment: Ainsworth's Strange Situation

• The Strange Situation is a structured procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between infants and caregivers.

• Attachment quality is classified into four main types:

Type of Attachment	Behavior	Parenting Style
Secure	Explores when caregiver is present; is comforted at reunion; positive responses to stranger when caregiver is present	Sensitive, responsive
Resistant (Ambivalent)	Clings to caregiver; fearful even when caregiver is present; not easily comforted at reunion	Inconsistent, often unresponsive
Avoidant	Indifferent to caregiver; avoids or ignores caregiver at reunion; little distress at separation	Rejecting, unresponsive, or overstimulating
Disorganized-Disoriented	Confused, contradictory behaviors; may approach caregiver but also avoid or freeze	Frightened, frightening, or abusive

Attachment-Related Fears

• Separation anxiety: Distress when separated from the caregiver; peaks between 14 and 18 months.

• Stranger anxiety: Wary or fretful reaction to unfamiliar people; peaks around one year of age.

Caregiver and Infant Contributions to Attachment

• Caregiver's sensitivity and responsiveness to the infant's needs and emotional signals promote secure attachment.

• Contact comfort is crucial for human attachment formation.

• Infant temperament has a weaker relationship with attachment quality than caregiver behavior.

Parental Roles in Attachment

• Securely attached infants typically have parents who are:

  • Aware of moods and feelings

  • Responsive in interactions

  • Feed "on demand"

  • Demonstrate warmth and affection

  • Respond rapidly and positively to cues

• Mothers' responsiveness is influenced by their own attachment history and the infant's ability to provide cues.

• Fathers can also be primary attachment figures; their expressions of nurturance and support are vital for infant well-being. Some psychological disorders are more related to fathers' than mothers' behavior.

Multiple Attachments

• Infants' social bonds extend beyond parents as they grow older.

• Most infants form their first primary relationship with one person, but by 18 months, most have multiple attachment relationships.

Consequences of Attachment Quality

• Secure attachment in infancy is associated with:

  • Fewer psychological difficulties at older ages

  • Greater social and emotional competence

  • More positive adult romantic relationships

• However, not all children with insecure attachment have later difficulties, and not all securely attached infants have positive outcomes.

Implications of Early Attachment

• Institutionalized children adopted before one year of age can develop secure attachments; after one year, insecure and disturbed attachment is more common.

• NICHD study: Quality of parenting is a stronger influence on attachment than whether the child receives alternative care.

Relationship Quality Across Development

• Relationship quality at each stage (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood) influences the next stage.

• Secure attachment in infancy predicts good peer relations, intimate friendships in adolescence, and positive romantic relationships in adulthood.

Cultural Differences in Attachment

• Attachment patterns are not as culturally universal as once thought.

• Different cultures show variations in attachment types (e.g., Germany, Israel, Japan, China, Canada).

• Parental roles and play styles differ across cultures, affecting attachment outcomes.

Temperament and Stabilities in Infant Behavior

What is Temperament?

• Temperament refers to patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual.

Dimensions of Temperament in Infants

Dimension	Definition
Activity level	High: Vigorous while being changed; Low: Less active
Approach/withdrawal	Approach: Accepts new foods/toys; Withdrawal: Cries when stranger nears
Quality of mood	Negative: Cries when diaper is changed; Positive: Smiles or laughs when being fed
Distractibility	Low: Continues crying when diaper is changed; High: Stops crying when rocked
Rhythmicity	Regular: Consistent feeding/sleeping; Irregular: Varies widely
Threshold of responsiveness	High: Not startled by sudden noises; Low: Pauses sucking on bottle at parent’s slight voice

Categorizing Temperament

• Infants can be described as:

  • Easy babies: Positive disposition, regular body functions, adaptable, curious, moderate/low intensity emotions (about 40%).

  • Difficult babies: Negative moods, slow to adapt, withdraw from new situations (about 10%).

  • Slow-to-warm-up babies: Inactive, calm, generally negative mood, slow to adapt (about 15%).

  • Inconsistently categorized: Show a mix of characteristics, not fitting into other categories (about 35%).

Parenting Styles

Dimensions of Parenting

• Warmth/responsiveness: Degree of parental warmth, support, and sensitivity to children's needs.

• Demandingness/control: Degree of control over decisions, ranging from parent-centered to child-centered approaches.

Types of Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian: Many rules, expect strict obedience, low warmth.

• Authoritative: Flexible, demanding but sensitive, high warmth and control.

• Permissive: Few rules, child-centered, rarely exert control, high warmth, low control.

• Neglectful: Hostile, rejecting, or indifferent, low warmth and control.

Parental Acceptance-Responsiveness	High	Low
High Demandingness-Control	Authoritative: Reasonable demands, consistently enforced, sensitivity to child	Authoritarian: Many rules, demands, few explanations
Low Demandingness-Control	Permissive: Few rules, children allowed much freedom	Neglectful: Few rules, uninvolved, insensitive

Social Class, Economic Hardship, and Parenting

• Working-class parents tend to emphasize obedience and respect for authority more than middle- or upper-class parents.

• Differences in parenting styles may be explained by financial stress, resource investment, and socialization goals.

Additional info: Attachment theory and parenting styles are foundational for understanding developmental psychology, with implications for emotional regulation, social competence, and mental health across the lifespan.